The sector includes real estate, barbershops, banks, and computer repair shops.

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Page 2

It is important to remember that employment than the average; in several-electronic engi declines and an abundance of qualified jobgrowth will vary among the occupations within

neers, mechanical engineers, and systems ana seekers, competition is expected for jobs in each of the 16 broad groups, and that both the

lysts—it will increase much faster than the college and university teaching, as librarians, rate of growth and the size of the change in average.

in counseling, and, through 1990, in secondary

Increased military expenditures, growing employment are important in analyzing the job

school teaching. Staff cutbacks in school sysoutlook (chart 10).

demand for computers and other electronic tems and social service agencies will intensify Administrative and managerial occupations. equipment, expansion and automation of indus

competition for these jobs. trial production, and development of energy Workers in these occupations direct and control

As school enrollments start increasing after sources are some of the factors expected to lead the activities of businesses, government agen

1985, job prospects for elementary school to higher employment in engineering occupa teachers are expected to be more favorable than cies, and other organizations, or provide tech

tions. The growing application of computers in in recent years. Prospects in secondary schools nical support to workers who do. In most of business and research will contribute to in

may improve in the early 1990's, as enrollments these occupations, employment is expected to creased employment of systems analysts. Re there begin to increase. Teachers and librarians increase about as fast as the average for all search to expand basic knowledge, develop generally will face better job prospects in scienoccupations. Although managers and admin

new technologies and products, and protect the tific and technical fields. istrators are employed throughout the economy, environment is expected to lead to higher em Health-related occupations. This group indifferences in industry growth will result in ployment in many scientific and engineering cludes health practitioners, nurses, health techdifferences in the rates of employment growth occupations. However, if the rate of economic

nicians and technologists, health service workfor managers and administrators. Employment growth and the research and development lev ers, dietitians, pharmacists, and therapists. of managers in the health industry, for example, els differ from those assumed, the job outlook Workers in these occupations care for the sick, is expected to increase much faster than the in many of these occupations would be altered.

help the disabled, and advise individuals and average. Employment of managers also should Competition in some smaller occupations that

communities on ways of maintaining and imgrow as fast as or faster than the average in are dependent on Government funding, such as

proving their health. electronic components manufacturing, data astronomers, will continue to be keen.

Employment in most of the health occupaprocessing services, credit and securities firms, Social science, social service, and related

tions is expected to grow faster than average as automotive repairs, and social services. In con occupations. In these occupations, workers

population growth—especially in the number trast, managerial employment in government provide direct social services and conduct ap of older people—increases the demand for and educational services is likely to grow more plied research into the behavior of individuals,

health care. Registered nurses, nursing aides slowly than the average due to the anticipated groups, and society at large. Employment in

and orderlies, because of the large size and modest growth of these industries.

many of the occupations in the group is ex anticipated growth in these occupations, will be Because of the increasing number of people pected to grow about as fast as the average. among the occupations providing the most new seeking managerial and administrative jobs and However, due to the number of people inter jobs through the mid-1990's. Despite the anticthe increasing technical requirements in many ested in these fields, competition for jobs is ipated growth in the health industry, physiof these occupations, experience, specialized expected in many social science occupations

cians, dentists, chiropractors, and veterinarians training, or post-baccalaureate study will be especially for academic positions. Generally, seeking to establish practices can expect unneeded for many managerial jobs. Familiarity prospects will be better for social scientists with

precedented competition due to the large with computers also will be helpful as man advanced degrees who seek work in applied number of newly trained practitioners each agers and administrators increasingly rely on fields.

year. computerized information systems to direct Competition also is likely for jobs as social It should be noted that the projections are their organizations.

and recreation workers in public and voluntary based on the assumption that health care expenEngineers, scientists, and related occupa agencies as well as for salaried positions for ditures will continue to increase rapidly and tions. Workers in these occupations design lawyers.

that health financing will not undergo drastic buildings, machinery, products, and systems; Teachers, librarians, and counselors. Work

change. However, current efforts to control conduct research; and perform related ac ers in these occupations help people learn, ac health costs could result in substantial changes tivities. Employment in many of the occupa quire information, or gain insight into them in the reimbursement procedures and, thereby, tions in this group is expected to increase faster selves. Because of anticipated enrollment directly affect the economic incentives of sup

pliers of health care. Such changes would be

likely to lower the projected employment levels Chart 9.

in many health occupations. In some, such as Through the mid-1990's, changes in employment will vary widely

health record technicians, new procedures among industries.

could lead to more growth than currently proProjected range of employment change, 1982-95 (millions)'

jected.

Writers, artists, and entertainers. This group -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Goods producing:

includes reporters, writers, designers, public

relations specialists, and performing artists. In Agriculture

most of these occupations, employment is exMining

pected to increase as fast as the average for all Construction

occupations. The continued importance of ad

vertising, public relations, print and broadcast Manufacturing

communications, and entertainment will spur Service producing:

employment growth. Transportation, communications,

Stiff competition for jobs in these occupaand public utilities.

tions is likely, due to the large numbers of Trade

people they attract. Talent and personal drive Finance, insurance, and

will continue to play an extremely important real estate

role in succeeding in these occupations. Within Services

individual occupations, some areas will offer Government

better job prospects. The best prospects for 'Wage and salary workers except for agriculture,

writers and editors, for example, will be in SOURCE: Bureau of Labor ics which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers. technical writing and in preparing business and

trade publications.

Page 3

Managers and administrators achieve the objec- the work varies, however, so does the level of level of managerial or administrative respontives of their organization by planning and di education required. Some managers and ad sibility. For example, management trainees recting the activities of others. In a very small ministrators, including school principals and may start working at salaries that are not much enterprise, the owner may also be the manager. hospital administrators, need at least a master's higher than those of the people they supervise. However, as a business or other organization degree. Positions such as these require the spe Earnings increase as managers gain experigrows and becomes more complex, more peo cialized knowledge and skills obtained through ence, prove their ability to handle the job, and ple are needed to oversee the operations of the years of formal education. Other positions, in take on additional responsibility. Median anwork force. Large corporations or government cluding production supervisor, retail buyer, nual earnings of full-time administrators and agencies may employ hundreds of managers, construction manager, and maintenance super managers, excluding self-employed, were organized into a hierarchy of administrative intendent, may not require a college degree. about $22,000 in 1982. The middle 50 percent positions.

People in these jobs often have worked their earned between $16,000 and $32,000. The top Top level managers—executives—are pri way up in the organization. Their main 10 percent earned about $40,000 or more. marily concerned with policymaking, plan- qualification is a thorough knowledge of the On the whole, employment of managers and ning, staffing, and overall coordination. They operating procedures of the workplace. In some administrators is projected to grow about as fast direct the activities of the organization through fields, such as accounting and bank manage as the average for all occupations through the departmental or “middle” level managers. Topment continuing education can accelerate ca mid-1990's. The overwhelming majority of job level managers include school superintendents, reer advancement.

openings is expected to result from the need to police and fire chiefs, bank presidents, gover On-the-job training enables workers with

replace those who transfer to other fields, nors, mayors, hospital administrators, chief exmanagement potential to “learn the

tire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. ecutive officers of corporations, department ticularly in wholesale and retail trade, many

The number of new jobs for managers and store managers, and government agency managers begin as management trainees, work

administrators created as a result of employdirectors.

ing under the direction of more experienced Below the top management in a large organi

ent expansion will vary by industry sector. managers. Management trainees may be hired

Government and educational services, for exzation are the middle managers, who direct from outside the organization or promoted from various departments. Middle managers may other positions within it. On-the-job training ample, will experience slower-than-average handle a particular area, such as personnel, programs provide trainees with the specific growth-resulting in limited demand for addiaccounting, sales, finance, or marketing. Or knowledge and experience they need to perform

tional administrators and support personnel. they may supervise the production process at a successfully.

Also, the large number of self-employed manfactory or industrial plant. Middle managers Despite the differences in formal education agers and administrators is expected to decline are the people who keep things running and training, successful managers are likely to

somewhat, as large enterprises and chain operasmoothly. They organize activities at the oper have certain characteristics in common. Be tions increasingly dominate business activity. ating level and provide direct supervision. cause they work with people, managers need to Projected above-average expansion in the

Middle managers work with the assistance of be able to get along with and motivate and health services industry will generate many administrative support personnel who plan, influence others. They should be able to inspire new managerial and administrative support organize, analyze, and monitor activities. Sup confidence and respect in those who work for positions in hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, port personnel include accountants, loan of them.

and other health-related organizations. Emficers, underwriters, employment interviewers, When they make plans and set goals for their

ployment growth should also be strong among purchasing agents and buyers, credit managers, enterprise, managers work with ideas. They

firms involved in electronic components manmembership directors, business and promotion need organizational skills, good judgment, and

ufacturing, computer and data processing servagents, and inspectors of all kinds. Jobs such as decisionmaking ability. Successful managers ices, credit and securities firms, food services, these require technical expertise or a thorough have mastered the art of getting all the facts,

automotive repairs, automobile rental services, understanding of a particular procedure or coming to a decision, and communicating it and social services. operation.

effectively. They need a strong sense of ini More detailed information on a number of Managers and administrators are employed tiative to be able to work without close administrative and managerial occupations apin virtually every type of industrial plant, com supervision.

pears in the following statements. mercial enterprise, and government agency. For some administrative positions, anaLarge numbers are employed in finance, insur lytical, evaluative, and promotional skills are ance, real estate, construction, government, essential. Accountants, purchasing agents, and health, education, transportation, public util others provide the technical expertise upon ities, and business services.

which management decisions are based. Like Accountants and Because of the wide range of establishments managers, they work closely with other people, employing managers, job duties vary greatly. but usually in a support rather than a superviso- Auditors For example, the manager of a fast-food restau ry capacity. Decisionmaking ability, good

(D.O.T. 160 through 167-042, and .267-014; and 189.117rant performs tasks that differ substantially judgment, and the ability to relate to others are

038) from those of a school administrator, communi important for people in these occupations. ty organization director, or construction Earnings for managers and administrators manager.

vary widely. They depend on the industry and Nature of the Work Since maturity and knowledge are essential, on the size and nature of the particular estab Managers must have up-to-date financial inforentrants to administrative and managerial oc lishment in which the manager is employed. mation to make important decisions. Accouncupations are generally older and have more For example, restaurant managers earn consid tants and auditors prepare, analyze, and verify education and work experience than entrants to erably less, on the average, than sales managers financial reports that furnish this kind of most other occupations. Because the nature of outside retail trade. Earnings also vary with the information.

Page 4

National Association of Accountants, 919 Third Ave., New York, N. Y. 10022.

National Society of Public Accountants and Ac-

The Institute of Internal Auditors, P.O. Box 1119, 249

For information on educational institutions offering a specialization in accounting, contact: American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business, 605 Old Ballas Rd., Suite 220, St. Louis, Mo. 63141.

Bank Officers and Managers

(D.O.T. 186.117-026, -038, -050, -054, -070, -074, -078; .137-010; .167-014, -050, -054, -058; and .267-018)

of allied industries such as insurance, real es international officer, for advising customers tate, and securities. Besides supervising finan with financial dealings abroad. A working cial services, officers advise individuals and

knowledge of a foreign country's financial sysbusinesses and participate in community

tem, trade relations, and economic conditions projects.

is beneficial to those interested in international Because banks offer many services, a wide choice of careers is available to workers who

banking specialize.

Other career fields for bank officers are auditLoan officers may handle personal, install

ing, economics, personnel administration, ment, commercial, real estate, or agricultural

public relations, and operations and systems loans. In the case of personal loan applications, analysis. loan officers must evaluate an individual's credit and collateral. In the case of business loan Working Conditions applications, loan officers should be familiar Since a great deal of bank business depends on with business operations and be able to analyze customers' impressions, officers and managers a firm's financial statements. Generally, officers

are provided attractive, comfortable offices and should be familiar with economics, production,

are encouraged to dress conservatively. Bank distribution, merchandising, commercial law, officers and managers typically work at least 40 and bank regulations.

hours a week; however, attending civic funcBank officers in trust management require

tions, keeping abreast of community developknowledge of financial planning and invest

ments, establishing and maintaining business ment sources for estate and trust administra

contacts, participating in trade association tion. The investment income from these ac

meetings, and similar activities may also occacounts may support families, send young

sionally result in overtime work. people to college, or institute a retirement pension

Employment Financial service officers—whose role is

Bank officers and managers held over 424,000
rapidly expanding—may describe the wide va-
riety of available investments and help persons

jobs in 1982. The following tabulation presents

the distribution of wage and salary jobs by establish a suitable investment portfolio. They help investors select an appropriate savings ac-

industry.
count and advise on the purchase of, and some-
times sell, real estate, securities, and Banking

303,000 insurance.

Commercial and stock savings
Operations officers plan, coordinate, and

banks

280,000 control the workflow, update systems, and

Mutual savings banks

11,000 Federal Reserve banks

2,000 strive for administrative efficiency. Careers in

Trust companies, nondeposit

1,000 bank operations include electronic data pro

Establishments closely related to cessing manager and other positions involving

banks

10,000 internal and customer services. A correspondent bank officer is responsible Credit agencies other than banks

121,000 for relations with other banks; a branch man

Savings and loan associations 53,000 ager, for all functions of a branch office; and an Personal credit institutions

43,000 Mortgage bankers and brokers 13,000 Business credit institutions

7,000 Agricultural credit institutions

4,000 Rediscount and financing institu

tions

Nature of the Work Practically every bank has a president who di- rects operations; one or more vice presidents who act as general managers or who are in

charge of bank departments such as trust or

Bank officers make decisions within a framework of policy set by the board of directors and existing laws and regulations. They must have a broad knowledge of business activities to relate to the operations of their department. Further, the expanding variety of financial services requires officers with detailed knowledge

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Bank officer and management positions are

curriculum, including accounting, economics,

fer, may provide an even stronger educationa

Page 5

employer's records and to check for com written examination. Generally, agencies pre Experienced food inspectors and agricultural plaints.

fer applicants who are college graduates and commodity graders averaged about $21,300 a Alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors whose course work is related to the job. year in 1982. Experienced immigration and inspect distilleries, wineries, and breweries; Food inspectors must have related experience customs inspectors averaged about $23,400 a cigar and cigarette manufacturing plants; and pass an examination based on specialized year, agricultural quarantine and alcohol, towholesale liquor dealers and importers; fireknowledge

bacco, and firearms inspectors about $26,800 a arms and explosives manufacturers, dealers,

Aviation safety inspectors must have consid year; and wage-hour compliance inspectors and users; and other regulated facilities. They erable experience in aviation maintenance and more than $30,800 a year in 1982. Experienced insure compliance with revenue laws and other

knowledge of the industry and relevant Federal consumer safety inspectors, mine inspectors, regulations on operating procedures, unfair laws. In addition, FAA approved pilot and med and occupational safety and health inspectors competition, and trade practices, and deter ical or mechanic certificates are required. Some employed by the Federal Government averaged mine that appropriate taxes are paid.

also require a FAA flight instructor rating. $33,600 in 1982. Experienced aviation safety Many aviation safety inspectors have had flight officers averaged over $39,400 a year. Postal

training and mechanical training in the Armed Working Conditions

inspectors averaged $37,000 a year in 1982. Forces. No written examination is required. Most health and regulatory inspectors live an

According to a 1982 survey by the Interna

Applicants for mine safety inspector posi tional Personnel Management Association, active life; they meet many people and work in

tions generally must have experience in mine a variety of environments. Their jobs often in

nonsupervisory environmental health inspecsafety, management, or supervision, or possess volve considerable fieldwork, and some inspec

tors working for selected U.S. cities and counta skill such as electrical engineering (for mine tors travel frequently. They are furnished with

ies received average starting salaries of almost electrical inspectors). In some cases, a general $16,900 in 1982; those working for State govan automobile or are reimbursed for travel exaptitude test may be required.

ernments started at about $2,200 less. Experipenses.

Some civil service examinations, including enced environmental health inspectors working At times, inspectors have unfavorable work

those for agricultural quarantine inspectors and for State governments earned over $16,400, but ing conditions. For example, food, and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms inspectors fre

agricultural commodity graders, rate applicants top supervisors and administrators made as

solely on their experience and education and much as $30,700 in 1982. quently come in contact with strong, unpleasant odors. Mine inspectors often are exposed to

require no written examination.

Qualifications usually are similar for inspec Related Occupations the same hazards as miners. Many inspectors

tors at the State and local level. Environmental Health and regulatory inspectors are responsiwork long and often irregular hours.

health inspectors, called sanitarians in many ble for seeing that government laws and regula

States, usually must have a bachelor's degree in tions are obeyed. Revenue agents, construction Employment

environmental health or the physical or biolog inspectors, State and local police officers, and Health and regulatory inspectors held over ical sciences. In most States, they are licensed fish and game wardens also enforce laws. 101,000 jobs in 1982. About 36 percent were

by examining boards. employed by the Federal Government, 34 per

All inspectors are trained in applicable laws Sources of Additional Information cent by State governments, and the rest by local

and inspection procedures through a combina Information on Federal Government jobs is governments.

tion of classroom and on-the-job training. In available from local offices of the State employThe largest single employer of consumer

general, people who want to become health and ment service, area offices of the U.S. Office of safety inspectors is the U.S. Food and Drug regulatory inspectors should be able to accept Personnel Management, and Federal Job InforAdministration, but the majority work for State

responsibility and like detailed work. They mation Centers in large cities throughout the governments. Most food inspectors and agri

should be neat and personable and able to ex country. For information on a career as a specifcultural commodity graders in processing

press themselves well orally and in writing. ic type of inspector, the Federal department or plants are employed by the U.S. Department of Federal Government inspectors whose job agency that employs them may also be conAgriculture. Agricultural quarantine inspectors performance is satisfactory advance through tacted directly work for the U.S. Public Health Service or the

their career ladder to a specified full perfor Information about State and local governU.S. Department of Agriculture. Most en mance level. Above this level (usually super ment jobs is available from State civil service vironmental health inspectors work for State

visory positions), advancement is competitive, commissions, usually located in each State capand local governments.

based on agency needs and individual merit. ital, or from local government offices. Most Federal regulatory inspectors work in regional and district offices throughout the

Job Outlook United States. Aviation safety inspectors work

Employment of health and regulatory inspecfor the Federal Aviation Administration; wage

tors as a group is expected to increase more hour compliance officers, for the Department of slowly than the average for all occupations Health Services Labor; and alcohol, tobacco, and firearms in through the mid-1990's. Employment growth is

Administrators spectors, for the Treasury Department. Oc expected to be constrained by slow growth in cupational safety and health inspectors and government regulatory programs and in gov

(D.O.T. 075.117-022; 187.117-010, -018, .137-014, 167 mine inspectors also work for the Department

ernment spending. Most job openings will be to -022, -034, -038, -090, and 188.117-082) of Labor, as well as for many State govern

replace those who transfer to other occupations, ments. Like agricultural quarantine inspectors, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons.

Nature of the Work immigration and customs inspectors work at

Because health and regulatory inspectors are

The unprecedented growth in expenditures U.S. airports, seaports, and border crossing government workers, their employment is sel

medical care in the United States since the points, and at foreign airports and seaports. dom affected by general economic fluctuations.

mid-1960's has produced new, larger, and more Immigration inspectors are employed by the Most inspectors work in programs which enjoy

complex health and medical care organizations Department of Justice. Customs inspectors wide public support. As a result, they are less

and a recognition of the need for competent work for the Treasury Department. likely to lose their jobs than many other work

administration. Public demand for better acers when government programs are cut.

cess, accountability, and cost control has added Training, Other Qualifications, and Earnings

new pressures, while changes in medical techAdvancement

In the Federal Government, the average starting nology, financing patterns, and public regulaBecause of the wide range of inspector jobs and salary for aviation safety officers and mining tion have made the job of good management varying starting levels, qualifications for em inspectors was $19,700 in 1982. Other health more complex. ployment differ greatly. Requirements are a and regulatory inspectors and graders started at Health services administrator is an inclusive combination of education, experience, and a $13,000, on the average, in 1982.

term for individuals in a variety of positions

Page 6

education is essential for advancement. Most State governments, earnings ranged from Managing the public schools in Raynham, agents participate in seminars offered by pro $11,000 for beginning purchasing agents to Massachusetts, is not quite the same as running fessional societies and take college courses in over $40,000 for chiefs of purchasing. Gener the public schools in Chicago. Nevertheless, purchasing. Certification enhances one's ally, local governments’ salaries are somewhat the kind of work performed by the superintenchances for top management positions. In pri lower. However, salaries in some major metro

dent is essentially the same in every district. vate industry, the recognized mark of experi- politan areas surpass their State government

On any given day, a superintendent may suence and professional competence is the desig counterparts.

pervise the preparation of a budget; participate nation Certified Purchasing Manager (C.P.M.). It is conferred by the National Association of

in collective bargaining sessions with emRelated Occupations Purchasing Management, Inc., upon candi Other workers who negotiate and contract to

ployees; meet with parents, teachers, or local

citizens' groups; plan for changes in physical dates who pass four examinations and meet purchase equipment, supplies, or other mereducational and experience requirements. In chandise include retail and wholesale buyers,

facilities or staff size due to changes in enrollgovernment, the indications of professional procurement services managers, livestock

ment; write reports to the school board; or issue competence are the designations Professional commission agents, and traffic managers.

directives pertaining to the operation of the Public Buyer (PPB) and Certified Public Pur

school system. chasing Officer (CPPO), conferred by the Na Sources of Additional Information

Most superintendents have one or more deptional Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Further information about careers in purchasing

uties or assistants. An assistant superintenInc. The PPB is earned by passing a two-part is available from:

dent's duties depend on the size and organizawritten examination and meeting educational National Association of Purchasing Management,

tion of the school system. In some districts, and experience requirements. A candidate must Inc., 496 Kinderkamack Road, Oradell, N.J. 07649.

assistant superintendents oversee all the operameet more stringent basic requirements and

tions in a particular geographic area; in others, National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc., pass a three-part written exam and an interview

they have authority over specific activities, 115 Hillwood Ave., Falls Church, Va. 22046. assessment to earn the CPPO.

personnel, budget, or instruction and pupil

services, for example. Job Outlook

Principals are the highest authority in a Employment of purchasing agents is expected

school. They are responsible for running the to increase about as fast as the average for all School Administrators

school according to the standards set by the occupations through the mid-1990's, as the vol(D.O.T. 091.107-010, 099.117-018, -022, and -030)

superintendent and board of education. ume of goods and services produced increases.

Ensuring high-quality instruction is the prinGoods-producing firms will expand purchasing Nature of the Work

cipal's most important responsibility. Prindepartments to handle the growing complexity of manufacturing processes and to help keep School administrators provide the leadership

cipals visit classrooms, review instructional ob

jectives, evaluate teachers, and examine learncosts of production materials and supplies to a and managerial ability that keep individual minimum. Many opportunities also should schools and entire school systems running

ing materials. They also spend a great deal of arise as service-producing organizations such smoothly. School administrators include school

time doing paperwork: Filling out forms, preas hospitals and schools also recognize the im district superintendents, assistant superinten

paring administrative reports, keeping track of dents, and assistant principals. The jobs vary

attendance, seeing that supplies are properly portance of professional purchasers in reducing

requisitioned and allocated, and so on. Despite greatly, and most of what follows primarily Most job openings, however, will continue to concerns those in the public school system.

the paperwork, principals spend much of the arise from the need to replace purchasing

The task of school administrators has grown

day with people. They confer with teachers and agents who leave their jobs. Many workers in more complex in recent years. Not only are

other staff—advising, explaining, or answering this occupation typically transfer to other oc schools and school systems larger than ever

procedural questions; they meet with students, cupations, often sales or managerial positions.

and they talk with parents and members of the before—the result of a continuing trend toward Others retire or leave the labor force for other consolidation—but they touch the lives of many

community

In larger schools, assistant principals often people, some of whom have become in

handle the discipline and coordinate social and Persons who have a master's degree in busi creasingly vocal, even angry, in pursuing their ness administration and a bachelor's degree in goals. It takes political as well as administrative

recreation programs. Assistant principals may

also provide individual or group counseling purchasing, or in engineering, science, or busi skill to handle the issues that confront school ness administration with courses in purchasing,

about personal, social, educational, or vocaleaders today: Quality education, desegrega

tional matters. should have the best opportunities. Graduates tion, contract negotiations with teachers, spiof 2-year programs in purchasing should con raling costs, and taxpayer resistance to higher tinue to find good opportunities, especially in taxes, to name a few. But, as educators, admin Working Conditions small firms. istrators have the satisfaction of knowing that

School administrators work mainly in their oftheir work smooths the way to knowledge for

fices, but they spend some time away from their Earnings their schools' students.

desks at meetings with parent and teacher assoCollege graduates hired as junior purchasing The job of a school administrator begins with

ciations, the school board, and civic groups; agents earned about $19,100 a year in 1983. planning and setting goals. To achieve these

sitting in on classes; attending school assemExperienced agents purchasing standard items goals, administrators must organize, coordi blies and sports events; and checking school averaged about $23,600 a year; senior purchas nate, direct, and evaluate the activities of physical facilities. ing agents specializing in complex or technical school personnel, ensuring that they meet dead

School superintendents and principals usugoods averaged about $29,000. Assistant pur lines and keep to their budgets. Administrators,

ally work a standard 40-hour week. However, at chasing managers received average salaries of acting on behalf of the school board, negotiate

night and on weekends, they often put in extra about $35,600 a year. Many corporate directors contracts and settle labor disputes. They must

hours at meetings or attending to problems that of purchasing or materials management earned also maintain good relations with the public.

require immediate attention. Unlike teachers, well over $50,000 a year. Salaries generally are Superintendents, the chief administrators of administrators work year round and can usually higher in large firms where responsibilities a school district, oversee and coordinate the

be found at their desks even during school often are greater. activities of all the schools in the district. The

vacations. In the Federal Government, beginning pur board of education selects the superintendent, chasing agents who had college degrees earned whose duties range from routine administrative Employment $13,000 or $16,100 in 1982, depending on scho tasks to long-range planning. The nature of the Elementary and secondary school adminlastic achievement and experience. Among job depends in part on the size of the district. istrators held about 133,000 jobs in 1982, most

Page 7

Nature of the Work

the quality of work meets the specified stanEngineers, surveyors, and architects do plan- Architects

dards. The job is not complete until conning and design. Engineers design machines,

struction is finished, all required tests are made, (D.O.T. 001.061-010, -014 and 167-010) processes, systems, and structures. Surveyors

construction costs are paid, and guarantees are measure and lay out land boundaries. Archi

received from the contractor. tects design buildings and other structures, as Nature of the Work

Architects design a wide variety of strucwell as outdoor areas. Architects, engineers, Designing a building involves far more than

tures, such as houses, churches, hospitals, ofand surveyors often work together on building planning an attractive exterior made of stone,

fice buildings, and airports. They also design projects. Architects design the building, con steel and glass, or other materials. Buildings multibuilding complexes for urban renewal centrating on the visual appearance as well as must be safe as well as attractive and suit the projects, college campuses, industrial parks, the needs of owners and occupants. Engineers needs of the people who use them. Architects and new towns. Besides designing structures, design those parts of the building which are take all these things into consideration and de architects also may help in selecting building concerned with such things as its mechanical, sign buildings that are esthetically appealing, sites, preparing cost and land-use studies, and heating, and electrical systems. Surveyors lay safe, and functional.

conducting long-range planning for land deout the building's boundaries and the bound Architects provide a wide variety of profes velopment. aries of the land it occupies.

sional services to individuals and organizations When working on large projects or for large Engineers apply scientific and mathematical planning a building project. Architects are in architectural firms, architects often specialize theories and principles to solve practical techvolved in all phases of development, from the

in one phase of the work, such as designing or nical problems. Most work in one of the more

initial discussion of general ideas with the client administering construction contracts. This than 25 specialties recognized by professional through construction. Their duties require a

often requires working with engineers, urban societies. Electrical, mechanical, civil, chemivariety of skills—design, engineering, man

planners, landscape architects, and others. agerial, and supervisory. cal, and aerospace engineering are the largest.

The architect and client first discuss the purAlthough many engineers design and develop

Working Conditions poses, requirements, and cost of a project. technical products and systems, others work in Based on the discussions, the architect prepares

Architects generally work in a comfortable entesting, production, operations, and mainte

vironment. Most of their time is spent in offices a program—a report specifying the requirenance.

interviewing clients, developing reports and ments the design must meet. The architect then Architects also apply scientific and matheprepares carefully scaled drawings presenting

drawings, and working with other architects matical theories and principles to design and

and engineers. However, they also often work at ideas for meeting the client's needs. construct buildings which are esthetically ap

the construction site inspecting the progress of

After the architect's initial proposals are dispealing and safe, and which meet the needs of

the project. cussed and accepted, the architect develops

Architects may work under great stress to their client. final construction documents that incorporate

meet deadlines and working nights and weekSurveyors use mathematical and scientific any changes required by the client. These docu

ends is not uncommon. principles to measure and lay out land areas and ments show the floor plans, elevations, buildestablish boundaries. They also research deeds, ing sections, and other construction details of write legal descriptions of land, and collect the project. Accompanying the architectural Employment information for maps and charts. drawings are drawings of the structural system,

Architects held about 84,000 jobs in 1982. air-conditioning, heating, and ventilating sys

Most architects work for architectural firmstems, electrical systems, plumbing, and land

many of which employ fewer than five workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement scape plans.

The remainder work for builders, real estate Architects also specify the building materials

developers, or other businesses that have large The generally accepted standard for engineers and, in some cases, the interior furnishings. In

construction programs and for government is a bachelor's degree in engineering, although

all cases, the architect's design and specifica- agencies responsible for housing, planning, or those with degrees in natural science or mathetions must conform to local and State building

community development such as the Departmatics may sometimes qualify as engineers. codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and other

ments of Defense, Interior, and Housing and Surveyors usually qualify for their work with a ordinances, such as those that require easy ac

Urban Development. combination of postsecondary school courses cess by handicapped persons.

A large proportion of architects are located in and on-the-job training. Some obtain a junior

Throughout the planning stage, the architect

New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, and college degree in surveying. A bachelor's demay make changes to satisfy the client. A client

Washington where many large architectural gree in architecture is necessary to become an may decide that the design is too expensive and

firms are located. Increasing numbers of archiarchitect. To offer architectural services to the ask the architect to make modifications, or the

tects are finding employment in areas of the public, architecture graduates must have severclient may propose additions to the original

South and Southwest that are attracting new al years' work experience and pass a licensing plan. Redesigning to suit the client requires

business and residential construction such as examination. flexibility, and sometimes considerable pa

Dallas-Ft. Worth, Phoenix, and a number of tience, on the part of the architect.

Florida cities. Job Outlook

After all drawings are completed, the archiAll occupations in this group are expected to tect assists the client in selecting a contractor Training, Other Qualifications, and grow as fast as or faster than the average for all and negotiating the construction contract. As Advancement occupations through the mid-1990's. In archi construction proceeds, the architect visits the All States and the District of Columbia require tecture, however, growth may not be rapid building site to monitor the contractor in fol individuals to be registered (licensed) before enough to provide jobs for all of those seeking lowing the design and using the specified mate they may call themselves architects or contract to enter the occupation.

rials. The architect also checks to be sure that for providing architectural services. To qualify

Page 8

The work of engineers has made it possible to Engineers must consider many factors in de example, work in the medical, computer, miscommunicate by telephone, radio, and TV; to veloping a new product. For example, in de sile guidance, or power distribution fields. Betravel in space; and to prolong life. Future ac veloping devices to reduce automobile exhaust

cause complex problems cut across traditional complishments could be increased energy sup

emissions, engineers must determine the gener fields, engineers in one field often work closely plies, more pollution-free powerplants, and aid al way the device will work, design and test all

with specialists in scientific, other engineering, to medical science in its fight against disease.

components, and fit them together in an inte and business occupations. This section, which contains an overall disgrated plan. They must then evaluate the overall

Engineers often use calculators and comcussion of engineering, is followed by separate

effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety of the statements on ten branches of the professionnew device. This process applies to products as

puters to solve mathematical equations which

describe how a machine, structure, or system different as lawnmowers, computers, industrial aerospace, chemical, civil, electrical, indusmachinery, and toys.

operates. Engineers also spend a great deal of trial, mechanical, metallurgical, mining, nu

In addition to design and development, many

time writing reports and consulting with other clear, and petroleum engineering engineers work in testing, production, opera

engineers. Complex projects require many entions, or maintenance. They supervise produc

gineers, each working with a small part of the Nature of the Work

tion processes in factories, determine the job. Supervisory engineers are responsible for Engineers apply the theories and principles of causes of breakdowns, and test newly manufac

entire projects. science and mathematics to practical technical tured products to maintain quality. They also problems. Often their work is the link between estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Working Conditions a scientific discovery and its application. Engi Some work in engineering administration and Some engineers are at a desk in an office buildneers design machinery, products, systems, management, or in sales jobs where an engi- ing almost all of the time but others work in and processes for efficient and economical per neering background enables them to discuss the research laboratories, industrial plants, or conformance. They develop electric power, water technical aspects of a product and assist in plan struction sites to inspect, supervise or solve onsupply, and waste disposal systems. They de ning its installation or use. (See the statement site problems. Engineers in specialties such as sign industrial machinery and equipment for on manufacturers' sales workers elsewhere in civil engineering may work outdoors part of the manufacturing goods, and heating, air-con the Handbook.) Some engineers work as con time. A few engineers travel extensively to ditioning, and ventilation equipment for more sultants.

plants or construction sites. Some work overcomfortable living. Engineers also develop sci Most engineers specialize; more than 25 spe time to meet deadlines, often without addientific equipment to probe outer space and the cialties are recognized by professional so tional compensation. ocean depths; design defense and weapons sys cieties. Within the major branches are over 85 tems for the Armed Forces; and design, plan, subdivisions. Structural, hydraulic, and high- Employment and supervise the construction of buildings, way engineering, for example, are subdivisions

Engineering is the second largest profession, highways, and rapid transit systems. They also of civil engineering. Engineers also may spe exceeded only by teaching. In 1982, engineers design and develop consumer products such as cialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, held about 1,204,000. About 600,000 or oneautomobiles, television sets, refrigerators, and or in one field of technology, such as propulsion

half of all engineering jobs were located in electronic games, and systems for control and or guidance systems.

manufacturing industries—mostly in electrical automation of manufacturing, business, and Engineers in each branch apply their knowl and electronic equipment, aircraft and parts, management processes. edge to many fields. Electrical engineers, for

machinery, chemicals, scientific instruments, primary metals, fabricated metal products, and

motor vehicle industries. In 1982, over 400,000 Electrical engineering is the largest engineering specialty.

jobs were in nonmanufacturing industries, pri

marily in engineering and architectural servEmployment, 1982 (thousands)

ices, construction, public utilities, and business 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 and management consulting services.

Federal, State, and local governments emElectrical

ployed about 160,000 engineers. Over half of

the jobs were in the Federal Government, mainMechanical

ly in the Departments of Defense, Interior, EnIndustrial

ergy, Agriculture, and Transportation, and in Civil

the National Aeronautics and Space Admin

istration. Most engineers in State and local govChemical

ernment agencies worked in highway and pubAeronautical

lic works departments. Petroleum

Besides the jobs described above, about

40,000 persons held engineering faculty posiMetallurgical

tions in colleges and universities in 1982. (See Nuclear 0

the statement on college and university faculty Mining

elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Engineers are employed in every State, in Other

small and large cities, and in rural areas. Some

branches of engineering are concentrated in SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics

particular industries and geographic areas, as discussed in statements later in this chapter.

Page 9

Large numbers of mechanical engineers do Metallurgical work in maintenance, technical sales, and pro- Engineers

Employment

and rocket engines. They also design and de result from the need to replace mechanical enIndustrial engineers held 160,000 jobs in 1982; velop power-using machines such as refrigera- gineers who transfer to other occupations, remore than 3 out of 4 jobs were in manufacturing

tion and air-conditioning equipment, elevators, tire, or die. industries. Because their skills can be used in

machine tools, printing presses, and industrial almost any type of organization, industrial enproduction equipment.

Sources of Additional Information gineers are more widely distributed among in

The work of mechanical engineers varies by dustries than other engineers. For example,

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 industry and function. Many specialties have E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. some even work for insurance companies,

developed within the field; they include motor banks, hospitals, and retail organizations.

(See introductory part of this section for invehicles; marine equipment; energy conversion Some work for government agencies or are

formation on training requirements and earnindependent consultants.

systems, heating, ventilating, and air-con ings.)

ditioning; instrumentation; and special maJob Outlook

chines for industries such as petroleum, rubber, Employment of industrial engineers is expected plastics, and construction. to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the mid-1990's. Most job open

research, test, and design work while others ings, however, will result from the need to replace industrial engineers who transfer to other duction operations. Many are administrators or

(D.O.T. 011.061, and .161.010) occupations, retire, or die.

managers. Some work as consultants. Industrial growth, more complex business operations, and the greater use of automation Employment

Nature of the Work underlie the projected employment growth. Mechanical engineers held about 209,000 jobs Metallurgical engineers develop new types of Jobs also will be created as firms seek to reduce in 1982. Almost 3 out of 5 jobs were in man

metal tailored to meet specific requirementscosts and increase productivity through scien

ufacturing—most in the machinery, transporta heat resistant, strong but lightweight, or highly tific management and safety engineering. tion equipment, electrical equipment, and pri

malleable. They also develop methods to promary and fabricated metals industries. Busi cess and convert metals into useful products. Sources of Additional Information ness and engineering consulting services and

Most of these engineers work in one of the three Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 25 Technology government agencies provided most of the re

main branches of metallurgy–extractive or Park/Atlanta, Norcross, Ga. 30092.

chemical, physical, and mechanical or process. maining jobs. (See introductory part of this section for in

Extractive metallurgists are concerned with reformation on training requirements and earn

moving metals from ores, and refining and alings.) Job Outlook

loying them to obtain useful metal. Physical Employment of mechanical engineers is ex metallurgists deal with the nature, structure, pected to increase much faster than the average

and physical properties of metals and their alfor all occupations through the mid-1990's as

loys, and with methods of converting refined the demand for machinery and machine tools metals into final products. Mechanical metal

lurgists develop methods such as casting, forg(D.O.T. 007.061, .151, .161-022 and -034, .167-014; become increasingly complex. Mechanical en ing, rolling, and drawing to work and shape 014.061, .151, and .167)

gineers will be needed to develop new energy metals. Scientists working in this field are

systems and to help solve environmental pollu known as metallurgists or materials scientists, Nature of the Work

tion problems. Despite this expected employ- but the distinction between scientists and engiMechanical engineers are concerned with the

ment growth, however, most job openings will neers in this field is small. use, production, and transmission of mechanical power. They design and develop powerproducing machines such as internal combustion engines, steam and gas turt es, and jet

Mechanical Engineers grows and industrial machinery and processes

Almost 3 out of 5 mechanical engineers work in manufacturing industries.

A metallurgical engineer examines the structure of a metal sample.

Page 10

hours). Courses in accounting, computer sci Job Outlook

Related Occupations ence, economics, and insurance also are useful. Employment of actuaries is expected to grow Actuaries assemble and analyze statistics in Although only 34 colleges and universities of faster than the average for all occupations their day-to-day work. Other workers whose fer a degree in actuarial science, several hun through the mid-1990's. Most job openings, jobs involve similar skills include mathematidred schools offer a degree in mathematics or however, are expected to arise each year to

cians, statisticians, economists, financial anastatistics. replace actuaries who transfer to other occupa

lysts, and engineering analysts. A strong background in mathematics is es tions, retire, die, or stop working for other sential for persons interested in a career as an reasons. Job opportunities will be best for col

Sources of Additional Information actuary. It is an advantage to pass, while still in lege graduates who have passed at least two

For facts about actuarial opportunities and school, one or more of the examinations offered actuarial examinations while still in school and

qualifications, contact: by professional actuarial societies. Three so have a strong mathematical and statistical back American Society of Pension Actuaries, 1413 K St. cieties sponsor programs leading to full profes ground.

NW., 5th Floor, Washington, D.C. 20005. sional status in their specialty. The Society of Employment in this occupation is influenced

Casualty Actuarial Society, One Penn Plaza, 250 Actuaries gives ten actuarial examinations for by the volume of insurance sales and pension West 34th St., New York, N.Y. 10119. the life and health insurance and pension field; plans, which are expected to grow over the next

Society of Actuaries, 500 Park Blvd., Room 440, the Casualty Actuarial Society gives ten exam decade. Shifts in the age distribution of the

Itasca, Ill. 60143. inations for the property and liability field; and population will result in a large increase in the the American Society of Pension Actuaries number of people with established careers and

American Academy of Actuaries, 1835 K St. NW., gives nine examinations covering the pension family responsibilities. This is the group that

Suite 515, Washington, D.C. 20006. field. Because the first parts of the examination traditionally has accounted for the bulk of priseries of each society cover similar materials,

vate insurance sales. students need not commit themselves to a spe

In addition, changing insurance practices cialty until they have taken three examinations.

will create a need for more actuarial services. These test competence in subjects such as linear

For example, as insurance companies branch

out into more than one kind of insurance algebra, numerical methods, operations re

coverage, more actuaries will be needed to essearch, probability, calculus, and statistics. tablish rates. Growth in new forms of protec

(D.O.T. 003.167-062; 012.167-066; 020.062-010, and These first few examinations help students evaltion, such as dental, prepaid legal, and kidnap

.067-010; and 109.067-010) uate their potential as actuaries, and those who

insurance also will stimulate demand. As peopass usually have better opportunities for em

ple live longer, they draw health and pension Nature of the Work ployment and higher starting salaries.

benefits for a longer period, and actuaries will Actuaries are encouraged to complete the

Systems analysts plan and develop methods for need to recalculate the probabilities of such entire series of examinations as soon as possi

computerizing business and scientific tasks or factors as death, sickness, and length of retire

improving computer systems already in use. ble; completion generally takes from 5 to 10 ment. As more States pass competitive rating They may work for an organization that wants years. Many students pass two or more actu laws, many companies that previously relied on

the system or for a consulting firm that develops arial examinations before graduating from col rating bureaus for actuarial data may create

systems under contract. lege. Examinations are given twice each year. their own actuarial departments or use the serv

Analysts begin an assignment by discussing Extensive home study is required to pass the ices of consulting actuaries.

the data processing problem with managers or advanced examinations; many actuaries study The liability of companies for damage result

specialists to determine the exact nature of the 20-25 hours a week. Actuaries who complete ing from their products has received much at

problem and to break it down into its compofive examinations in either the life insurance tention in recent years. Actuaries will continue

nent parts. If a retail chain wished to comseries or the pension series or seven examina

to be involved in the development of product puterize its inventory system, for example, systions in the casualty series are awarded “assocliability insurance, as well as medical malprac

tems analysts would determine what informaiate” membership in their society. Those who

tice, workers' compensation coverage, and pol tion must be collected, how it would be pass an entire series receive full membership lution liability insurance.

processed, and the type and frequency of reand the title “fellow.”'

Insurance coverage is considered a necessity by most individuals and businesses, regardless

ports to be produced. After they have defined Consulting pension actuaries who service

the goals of the system, they use techniques of economic conditions. Therefore, actuaries private pension plans and certify their solvency

such as mathematical model building, samare unlikely to be laid off during a recession. must be enrolled by the Joint Board for the

pling, and cost accounting to plan the system. Enrollment of Actuaries. Applicants for enroll

Once a design for the system has been deEarnings ment must meet certain experience and educa

veloped, systems analysts prepare charts and In 1982, new college graduates entering the life tion requirements as stipulated by the Joint

diagrams that describe it in terms that managers insurance field without having passed any actu and users can understand. They also may preBoard.

arial exams averaged about $16,000-$17,000, pare a cost-benefit and return on investment Beginning actuaries often rotate among jobs

according to estimates by the Society of Actuto learn various actuarial operations and dif

analysis to help management decide whether aries. Beginners who had completed the first the proposed system is satisfactory. ferent phases of insurance work. At first, they

exam received between $17,000 and $18,500, If the system is accepted, systems analysts prepare tabulations for actuarial tables or per and those who had passed the second exam may determine what computer hardware and form other simple tasks. As they gain experi- averaged between $18,500 and $20,000, de software will be needed to set up the system. ence, they may supervise clerks, prepare corre pending on geographic location.

They also prepare specifications for programspondence and reports, and do research.

Insurance companies and consulting firms mers to follow and work with them to "debug,' Advancement to more responsible work as give merit increases to actuaries as they gain or eliminate errors from the system. (The work assistant, associate, and chief actuary depends experience and pass examinations. Actuaries of computer programmers is described largely on job performance and the number of who became associates in 1982 averaged be elsewhere in the Handbook). The analyst also actuarial examinations passed. Actuaries who tween $24,000 and $28,000 a year; actuaries would design any forms required to collect data have a broad knowledge of the insurance, pen who became fellows during that year averaged and distribute information. sion, and employee benefits fields often ad between $35,000 and $45,000. Fellows with Because the possible uses for computers are vance to top administrative and executive posi additional years of experience can earn substan so varied and complex, analysts usually spetions in underwriting, accounting, or data tially more—top actuarial executives received cialize in either business, scientific, or engiprocessing departments.

salaries of $50,000 a year and higher. neering applications. Often, they have training

Page 11

Physical scientists investigate the structure and have. If similar products exist, chemists test the chemical manufacturing industry; the rest

composition of the earth and the universe. samples to determine their ingredients. If no are scattered throughout other manufacturing | Many physical scientists perform research de such product exists, chemists experiment with industries. Chemists also work for State and

signed to increase basic scientific knowledge. various substances to develop a product with local governments, primarily in health and agriOthers employ the results of research to solve the required specifications.

culture, and for Federal agencies, chiefly the practical problems in developing new products, About 10 percent of all chemists work in

Departments of Defense, Health and Human locating new sources of oil, or predicting the production and inspection. In production,

Resources, and Agriculture. Smaller numbers weather. chemists prepare instructions (batch sheets) for

work for nonprofit research organizations. In This section covers four physical science oc plant workers that specify the kind and amount

addition, about 19,000 persons held chemistry cupations—chemists, geologists and geophysi of ingredients to use and the exact mixing time cists, meteorologists, and physicists (which in for each stage in the process or monitor auto

faculty positions in colleges and universities in !cludes astronomers). Persons who teach the mated processes to ensure proper product yield

1982. (See the statement on college and univer1 physical sciences in colleges and universities and quality. At each step, samples are tested for

sity faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) I are discussed in the statement on college and quality control to meet industry and govern

Chemists are employed in all parts of the university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook. ment standards. Chemists keep records and

country, but they are concentrated in large in1 Most physicists have Ph.D.'s. The jobs of

dustrial areas. 1

prepare reports showing results of tests. Others many other physical scientists also require a work as marketing or sales representatives Ph.D., especially research positions, but some where they sell and provide technical informa Training, Other Qualifications, and jobs in these other fields can be entered with a tion on chemical products.

Advancement bachelor's degree.

Chemists often specialize in a subfield of A bachelor's degree with a major in chemistry A knowledge of the physical sciences (es chemistry. Analytical chemists determine the

or a related discipline is sufficient for many pecially chemistry and physics) is also required structure, composition, and nature of sub

beginning jobs as a chemist. However, graduate by engineers and life scientists; these occupa stances, and develop new analytical tech

training is required for most research jobs, and } tions are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. niques. An outstanding example of the ca

most college teaching jobs require a Ph.D. depabilities of this specialty was the analysis of

gree. Beginning chemists should have a broad moon rocks by an international team of ana background in chemistry, with good laboratory

lytical chemists. Biochemists study the chemi skills. Chemists cal composition of living things. They try to

Many colleges and universities offer a bachunderstand the complex chemical combinations

elor's degree program in chemistry. About 550 (D.O.T. 022.061-010 and -014, .137-010, .161-010; and and reactions involved in reproduction, are approved by the American Chemical So041.061-026) growth, and heredity. Recent advances in bio

ciety. In addition to required courses in anachemistry have resulted in the discovery of lytical, inorganic, organic, and physical chemNature of the Work

many of the mechanisms of reproduction and istry, undergraduates usually study matheThe clothes we wear, the foods we eat, the heredity, including how to splice genes (a tech

matics, physics, and liberal arts. houses in which we live—in fact, most things

nique called recombinant DNA). These discov Several hundred colleges and universities that help make our lives better, from medical eries will probably lead to major advances in award advanced degrees in chemistry. Graduate care to a cleaner environment—result, in part,

medicine and to the development of new prod students generally specialize in a subfield of from the work done by chemists. ucts and production processes. Organic chem

chemistry. Requirements for the master's and Chemists search for and put to practical use

ists study the chemistry of carbon compounds. doctor's degree usually include a thesis based new knowledge about substances. Their re When combined with other elements, carbon

on independent research. search has resulted in the development of a forms a vast number of substances. Many mod

Students planning careers as chemists should tremendous variety of synthetic materials, such

ern commercial products, including drugs, enjoy studying science and mathematics, and as nylon and polyester fabrics, and processes plastics, and other synthetics, have resulted

should like working with their hands building which help save energy and reduce pollution,

from the work of organic chemists. Inorganic scientific apparatus and performing experisuch as improved oil refining methods. Re chemists study compounds other than carbon.

ments. Perseverance and the ability to concensearch on the chemistry of living things They may, for example, develop materials for

trate on detail and to work independently are provides the basis for advances in medicine, electronic components. Physical chemists essential. Other assets include an inquisitive agriculture, and other areas.

study the physical characteristics of atoms and mind and imagination. Over 60 percent of all chemists work in re molecules and investigate how chemical reac Graduates with the bachelor's degree genersearch and development. In basic research, tions work. This research may result in new and

ally begin their careers in government or induschemists investigate the properties, composibetter energy sources.

try by analyzing or testing products, working in tion, and structure of matter and the laws that Working Conditions

technical sales or service, or assisting senior gover the combination of elements and reacChemists usually work regular hours in offices

chemists in research and development laboratotions of substances. In applied research and and laboratories. Some are exposed to health or

ries. Some in entry level positions are considdevelopment, they create new products or im

ered chemists; others are considered senior safety hazards when handling certain chemiprove existing ones, often using knowledge cals, but there is little risk if proper procedures

chemical technicians. Employers may have gained from basic research. For example, syn

training and orientation programs which are followed. thetic rubber and plastics have resulted from

provide special knowledge needed for the emresearch on small molecules uniting to form Employment

ployer's type of work. Candidates for an adlarger ones (polymerization).

Chemists held about 89,000 jobs in 1982. Al vanced degree often teach or do research in The process of developing a product begins most two-thirds of all chemists work for man colleges and universities while working toward with descriptions of the characteristics it should ufacturing firms—about one-half of these are in their degrees.

Page 12

Life scientists study living organisms and their Animal scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-014) do agement jobs. A master's degree is sufficient

life processes, such as growth, reproduction, research on the breeding, feeding, and diseases for some jobs in applied research. The bach1 and behavior. They apply knowledge gained of domestic farm animals.

elor's degree is adequate preparation for some 1 from research to specific goals such as the de Dairy scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-018) and jobs in sales, inspection, and other nonresearch

velopment of drugs, special varieties of plants, Poultry scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-042) con areas, but, in some cases, promotions may be and ways of maintaining a cleaner environ duct research on the breeding, feeding, and limited for those who hold no higher degree. ment. They are concerned with the origin, pres management of dairy cattle and poultry. Those who hold degrees in related sciences ervation, and development of life, from the Horticulturists (D.O.T. 040.061-038) work such as biology, chemistry, or physics also may largest animal to the smallest living cell. Bio with orchard and garden plants such as fruit and enter some agricultural science jobs. logical scientists study the basic life processes nut trees, vegetables, and flowers. They seek to All States have at least one land-grant college of plants and animals, and agricultural scien improve plant culture methods for the beau

which offers agricultural science curriculums. - tists apply their knowledge of biology to tification of communities, homes, parks, and

Many other colleges and universities also offer agricultural problems. Foresters and con

other areas as well as for increasing crop quality servationists use their knowledge of life science and yields.

some kind of agricultural science courses.

Since some schools may not offer all spe

Soil scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-058) study to manage and conserve the natural resources of

cialties, students should investigate carefully forests, rangelands, and soil. Detailed informasoil characteristics, map soil types, and deter

the course offerings of the schools they are - tion about training requirements and job out

mine the best types of crops for each soil. They look in these occupations appears in the three study the responses of various types of soils to

considering. Requirements for advanced defertilizers, tillage practices, crop rotation, and

grees usually include fieldwork and laboratory statements that follow. other actions which affect the soil.

research as well as classroom studies and prepaAnimal breeders (D.O.T. 041.061-014) and

ration of a thesis based on independent replant breeders (D.O.T. 041.061-082) develop

search. systems of breeding to develop and improve

Agricultural scientists should be able to work desirable characteristics of animals and plants. independently or as part of a team and must be

Apiculturists (D.O.T. 041.061-018) study the able to communicate their findings clearly and (D.O.T. 040.061-010, -014, -018, -038, -042, and -058; culture and breeding of bees.

concisely, both orally and in writing. 041.061-014, -018, and -082)

Agricultural scientists who have advanced Working Conditions

degrees usually begin in research or teaching Nature of the Work

Agricultural scientists generally work regular jobs. With experience, they may advance to The work done by agricultural scientists has hours in offices, laboratories, or classrooms. jobs such as supervisors of research programs. played an important part in making American Some agricultural scientists spend much time farm workers the most productive agricultural outdoors conducting research on farms or agri Job Outlook workers in the world. Agricultural scientists cultural research stations.

Employment of agricultural scientists is exstudy farm crops and animals and develop ways

pected to grow more slowly than the average for of improving their quantity and quality. They Employment

all occupations through the mid-1990's. Many look for ways to increase yields with less labor, Agricultural scientists held about 22,000 jobs agricultural scientists work for Federal, State, control pests and weeds more effectively, and in 1982. In addition, over 15,000 persons held or local governments where little employment conserve soil and water. Agricultural science is agricultural science faculty positions in col growth is expected. Employment of agricultural closely related to biological science in that both leges and universities in 1982. (See the state scientists involved in research may grow involve the study of living organisms; agri ment on college and university faculty rapidly in private industry as advances such as cultural scientists then apply this knowledge to elsewhere in the Handbook.)

recombinant DNA now being made in biosolving practical problems in agriculture. Almost half of all agricultural scientists work technology are applied to agriculture. In addi

About 40 percent of all agricultural scientists for Federal, State, or local governments. Al tion to jobs arising from growth in demand for manage or administer research and develop most 3,000 worked for the Federal Government agricultural scientists, job openings will occur ment projects or marketing or production oper in 1982, mostly in the Department of Agri as agricultural scientists transfer to other ocations in companies that produce agricultural culture. Large numbers worked for State gov cupations, retire, or die. chemicals or machinery. About 20 percent do ernments at State agricultural colleges or agri Employment opportunities in agricultural research and development. Some spend most of

cultural research stations. Almost 10 percent of science are expected to be better for those with their time in laboratories, but some in research all agricultural scientists work for agricultural advanced degrees. However, a bachelor's deand development spend much of their time service companies; others work for fertilizer gree in agricultural science is useful for occupaworking with plants and animals in the field. companies, seed companies, and wholesale tions such as farmer or farm manager, cooperSome agricultural scientists teach in colleges distribution companies. Over 2,000 agri ative extension service worker, technician, or and universities and others work as consultants cultural scientists were self-employed in 1982, seed or fertilizer company sales representative. to business firms or to government. mainly as consultants.

Persons with degrees in agricultural science Agricultural scientists usually specialize in

also work for businesses that deal with farmers one of the following areas. Agronomists Training, Other Qualifications, and such as banks and farm equipment manufac(D.O.T. 040.061-010) are concerned with the Advancement

turers. growth and improvement of field crops. They Training requirements for agricultural scientists improve the quality and yield of crops such as depend on the specialty and the type of work Earnings com, wheat, and cotton by developing new performed. A Ph.D. degree in an agricultural According to the College Placement Council, growth methods or by controlling diseases, science specialty is usually required for college beginning salary offers for agricultural scienpests, and weeds. Some agronomists may spe teaching, independent research, and for ad tists with the bachelor's degree averaged cialize in a particular crop or crop problem. vancement to many administrative and man $16,700 a year in 1982.

Page 13

and organs. Pharmacologists may develop new Employment

Job Outlook or improved drugs and medicines.

Biological scientists held about 52,000 jobs in Employment of biological scientists is expected Physiologists (D.O.T. 041.061-078) study 1982. In addition, an almost equal number of to increase faster than the average for all oclife functions of plants and animals under nor persons held biology faculty positions in col cupations through the mid-1990's due to recent mal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists leges and universities. (See the statement on advances in genetic research that should result may specialize in functions such as growth, college and university faculty elsewhere in the in new drugs, improved plants, and medical reproduction, photosynthesis, respiration, or Handbook.)

discoveries. Advances in biological technology movement, or in the physiology of a certain About 14,000 biological scientists worked

should result in many additional research jobs area or system of the body. for the Federal Government in 1982. Over one

for biological scientists in private industry; adZoologists (D.O.T. 041.061-090) study vari quarter worked for the Department of Agri

ditional jobs are likely to be created by the ous aspects of animals—their origin, behavior, culture, and about one-fifth worked for the Na

production, by biological methods, of products diseases, and life processes. Some experiment tional Institutes of Health. Large numbers also

which are presently produced by chemical or

other methods. Efforts to preserve the environwith live animals in controlled or natural sur were employed by the Department of the Inte

ment should also result in additional employroundings while others dissect dead animals to rior and the Defense Department. State and

ment opportunities. In addition to jobs arising study their structure. Zoologists are usually local governments combined employed about

from growth in demand for biological scienidentified by the animal group studied-or 8,500.

tists, job openings will occur as some biolognithologists (birds), entomologists (insects), Over 12,000 worked in private industry, ical scientists transfer to other occuptions, remammalogists (mammals), herpetologists mostly in the pharmaceutical, chemical, food, tire, or die. (reptiles), and ichthyologists (fish). and agricultural services industries in 1982.

Employment opportunities for biological Some biological scientists apply their knowl About 4,000 worked for nonprofit research or scientists are expected to be better for those edge across a number of areas and may be ganizations and foundations; a few were self with advanced degrees since most new jobs will classified by the functions performed. Ecolo employed.

be research oriented. Furthermore, the employgists, for example, study the relationship be

ment outlook will vary by specialty. Those who tween organisms and their environments and

have the ability to do research in areas related to the effects of influences such as pollutants,

Training, Other Qualifications, and the genetic, cellular, and biochemical areas of

Advancement rainfall, temperature, and altitude on organ

biology should experience better employment isms. For example, ecologists examine

The Ph.D. degree generally is required for col opportunities than those in other specialties. plankton (microscopic water plants and ani

lege teaching, independent research, and for However, many persons with a bachelor's demals) and measure the radioactive content of

advancement to administrative research posi gree in biological science find jobs in occupafish to determine the effects of pollution.

tions and other management jobs. A master's tions such as science or engineering technicians Agricultural scientists, who may also be

degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied or medical laboratory technologists. Some beclassified as biological scientists, are included research. The bachelor's degree is adequate

come high school biology teachers. However, in a separate statement elsewhere in the Handpreparation for some beginning jobs, but pro

they are usually regarded as teachers rather than book. motions often are limited for those who hold no

biologists. (See the statement on secondary higher degree. New graduates with a bachelor's

school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) degree can start their careers in testing and

Others enter a wide range of occupations with Working Conditions

little or no connection to biology. inspecting jobs, or become technical sales and Biological scientists generally work regular service representatives. They also can become

Biological scientists rarely lose their jobs hours in offices, laboratories, or classrooms senior biology technicians, medical laboratory

during recessions, since most are employed on and usually are not exposed to unsafe or un

long-term research projects or in agriculture, healthy conditions. Some biological scientists technologists and technicians or, with courses

activities which are not much affected by ecosuch as botanists, ecologists, and zoologists in education, high school biology teachers.

nomic fluctuations. may take field trips which involve strenuous

(See the statement on secondary school teachphysical activity and primitive living condiers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many with a

Earnings tions. bachelors degree in biology enter medical, den

According to the College Placement Council, tal, veterinary, or other health profession beginning salary offers in private industry in schools. Some enter a wide range of occuations 1982 averaged $16,500 a year for bachelor's with little or no connection to biology. degree recipients and $17,000 a year for mas

Most colleges and universities offer bach ter's degree recipients in biological science. elor's degrees in biological science and many, In the Federal Government in early 1983, advanced degrees. Curriculums for advanced biological scientists having a bachelor's degree degrees in biological science often emphasize a could begin at $13,369 or $16,559 a year, departicular area of biological science such as pending on their college records. Those having microbiology or botany. Not all universities

the master's degree could start at $16,559 or offer all curriculums. Requirements for ad

$20,256, depending on their academic records vanced degrees usually include fieldwork and

or work experience; those having the Ph.D. laboratory research as well as classroom studies

degree could begin at $24,508 or $29,374 a and preparation of a thesis. Biological scientists

year. Biological scientists in the Federal Govwho have advanced degrees usually begin in

ernment averaged $31,900 a year in 1982. research or teaching jobs. With experience, Related Occupations they may advance to jobs such as supervisors of

Many occupations are related in some way to research programs.

biological scientists since they deal with living Prospective biological scientists should be

organisms. These include the conservation ocable to work independently or as part of a team

cupations of foresters, forestry technicians, and must be able to communicate their findings

range manangers, and soil conservationists, as clearly and concisely, both orally and in writ

well as agricultural scientists, biochemists, soil ing. Biological scientists conducting field re scientists, oceanographers, and life science Biological scientists study living organisms and

search in remote areas must have physical technicians. The wide array of health occupalife processes. stamina.

tions are all related to those in the biological

Page 14

Organization of American Historians, Indiana University, 112 North Bryan St., Bloomington, Ind. 47401.

For additional information on careers for historians, send a self-addressed, stamped envel

American Association for State and Local History, 708 Berry Rd., Nashville, Tenn. 37204.

For information on museum careers and mu- seum studies programs, contact:

Office of Museum Programs, Arts and Industries

For information on training for museum careers, contact:

American Association of Museums, 1055 Thomas Jefferson St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20007.

A pamphlet, Careers in Marketing (Mono- graph Series No. 4), may be obtained from: American Marketing Association, 250 Wacker St., Chicago, Ill. 60606.

The American Political Science Association, 1527 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036 offers two career pamphlets, one for undergraduates and one for faculty and graduate students, at $1 each. Also, A Guide to Graduate Study in Political Science is available for $7.50 for members and $10 for nonmembers. In addition, a monthly newsletter listing job openings, primarily academic, is available to members of the association.

Programs in Public Affairs and Administration, a directory that contains data on the academic content of programs, the student body, the format of instruction, and other information, may be purchased for $10 from: National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, 1120 G St. NW., Suite 520, Washington, D.C. 20005.

industry associations, labor unions, govern-
ment, and others.

Depending on the topic under study, econo-
mists may devise methods and procedures for obtaining data they need. For example, sam- pling techniques may be used to conduct a

survey, and econometric modeling techniques

Being able to present economic and statistical concepts in a meaningful way is particularly important for economists whose research is policy directed. Economists who work for business firms may be asked to provide management with information to make decisions on marketing and pricing of company products; to look at the advisability of adding new lines of merchandise, opening new

Economists review and analyze data in tables branches, or diversifying the company's opera and charts. tions; to analyze the effect of changes in the tax laws; or to prepare economic and business fore

Employment casts. Business economists working for firms

Economists held about 30,000 jobs in 1982, that carry on operations abroad may be asked to

About one-half of all economists were em prepare forecasts of foreign economic condi

ployed by government agencies, including a tions.

wide range of Federal agencies. Private indusEconomists who work for government agen

try, particularly manufacturing firms, banks cies assess economic conditions in the United

insurance companies, securities and invest States and abroad and estimate the economic

ment companies, economic research firms, and impact of specific changes in legislation or pub

management consulting firms, employed most lic policy. For example, they may study how of the rest. Some economists run their own changes in the minimum wage affect teenage consulting businesses. A number of economist unemployment. Most government economists combine a full-time job in government or busiare in the fields of agriculture, business, fi ness with part-time or consulting work in an nance, labor, transportation, urban economics, other setting or international trade. For example, economists Employment of economists is concentrate in the U.S. Department of Commerce study in large cities. The largest numbers are in New domestic production, distribution, and con

York City and Washington, D.C. Some worl sumption of commodities or services; those in abroad for companies with major internationa the Federal Trade Commission prepare industry operations; for the Department of State and analyses to assist in enforcing Federal statutes

other U.S. Government agencies; and for inter

national organizations. designed to eliminate unfair, deceptive, or mo

Besides the jobs described above, an estimat nopolistic practices in interstate commerce; and those in the Bureau of Labor Statistics analyze

ed 15,000 persons held economics faculty posi

tions in colleges and universities, according to data on prices, wages, employment, and pro

data from the National Science Foundation ductivity.

(For information about this occupation, see th
statement on college and university facult

elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Economics faculty have flexible work sched-

ules, dividing their time among teaching, re-

Training, Other Qualifications, and

Advancement
search, and administrative responsibilities. Economists working for government agencies

Economists must thoroughly understand eco

nomic theory and mathematical methods o and private firms, on the other hand, have much more structured work schedules. They may

economic analysis. Since many beginning job work alone with only reports, statistical charts,

in government and business involve the collec

tion and compilation of data, a thorough know computers, and calculators for company. Or

edge of basic statistical procedures is required they may be an integral part of a research team.

In addition to courses in macroeconomics, mi Most work under pressure of deadlines, tight

croeconomics, econometrics, and business an schedules, and heavy workloads, and some economic statistics, training in computer sci times must work overtime. Their routine may ence is highly recommended. be interrupted by telephone calls, letters, spe At the undergraduate level, courses in th cial requests for data, meetings, or con following subjects also are valuable: Busines ferences. Travel may be necessary to collect cycles; economic and business history; eco data or attend conferences.

nomic development of selected areas; mone

Nature of the Work
Economists study the way a society uses scarce
resources such as land, labor, raw materials,
and machinery to provide goods and services.
They analyze the results of their research to
determine the costs and benefits of making,
distributing, and using resources in a particular way. Their research might focus on topics such as energy costs, inflation, business cycles, un- employment, tax policy, or farm prices.

Some economists who are primarily theoreticians may develop theories through the use of mathematical models to explain the causes of inflation. Most economists, however, are concerned with practical applications of economic policy in a particular area, such as finance, labor, agriculture, transportation, energy, or health. They use their understanding of economic relationships to advise business firms, insurance companies, banks, securities firms,

Page 15

People with a master's degree in psychology award fellowships or scholarships, or arrange People pursuing a career in psychology must can administer and interpret tests as psycholog for part-time employment. The Veterans Ad be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal ical assistants. Under the supervision of psy ministration (VA) offers predoctoral train

effectively with people. Sensitivity, compaschologists, they can conduct research in laboraeeships to interns in VA hospitals, clinics, and

sion, and the ability to lead and inspire others tories, counsel patients, or perform adminrelated training agencies. The National Science

are particularly important for clinical work and istrative duties. They may teach in 2-year

counseling. Research psychologists should be Foundation, the Department of Health and colleges, or work as school psychologists or

able to do detailed work independently and as Human Services, the Armed Forces, and many counselors. (See the Handbook statement on

part of a team. Verbal and writing skills are other organizations also provide financial aid. vocational and education counselors.)

necessary to communicate research findings.

Psychologists who want to enter independent People with a bachelor's degree in psychol

Patience and perseverance are vital qualities practice must meet certification or licensing because results from psychological treatment of ogy are qualified to assist psychologists and

requirements. In 1982, all States and the Dis patients or research often are long in coming. other professionals in community mental health

trict of Columbia had such requirements. Licenters, vocational rehabilitation offices, and correctional programs; to work as research or

censing laws vary by State, but generally re Job Outlook administrative assistants; to take jobs as train

quire a doctorate in psychology and 2 years of Employment of psychologists is expected to ees in government or business; or—provided

professional experience. In addition, most increase faster than the average for all occupathey meet State certification requirements—to States require that applicants pass a written and

tions through the mid-1990's. Largely because teach high school. However, without additional an oral examination. Most State boards admin

of the substantial investment in training reacademic training, their advancement oppor

ister a standardized test. Some States certify quired to enter this specialized field, psychotunities are limited. those with master's level training as psycholog

logists have a strong attachment to their ocIn the Federal Government, candidates hav ical assistants or associates. Some States re

cupation only a relatively small proportion

leave the profession each year. Nevertheless, ing at least 24 semester hours in psychology quire continuing education for relicensure.

most job openings are expected to result from and one course in statistics qualify for entry

Most States require that licensed or certified

replacement needs. level positions. Competition for these jobs is psychologists limit their practice to those areas

Several factors may help maintain the dekeen, however. Clinical psychologists generin which they have developed professional

mand for psychologists: Increased emphasis on ally must have completed the Ph.D. or Psy.D. competence through training and experience. health maintenance rather than treatment of illrequirements and have served an internship;

The American Board of Professional Psy

ness; public concern for the development of vocational and guidance counselors usually chology recognizes professional achievement

human resources, which may result in more need 2 years of graduate study in counseling by awarding diplomas in clinical, counseling,

services for minorities, the elderly, and the and 1 year of counseling experience.

industrial and organizational, and school psy poor; and increased testing and counseling of At least 1 year of full-time graduate study is chology. Candidates generally need a doctorate children. Government funding of these services needed to earn a master's degree in psychology.

in psychology, 5 years of experience, and pro could affect the demand for psychologists. Requirements usually include practical experi

fessional endorsements; they also must pass an Some openings are likely to occur as psychoence in an applied setting or a master's thesis examination.

logists increasingly study the effects on people based on a research project. Three to five years of graduate work usually are required for a doctoral degree. The Ph.D. degree culminates in a dissertation based on original research. The Psy.D., based on practical work and examinations rather than a dissertation, prepares students for clinical and other applied positions. In clinical or counseling psychology, the requirements for the doctoral degree generally include an additional year or more of internship or supervised experience.

Competition for admission into graduate programs is keen. Some universities require an undergraduate major in psychology. Others prefer only basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical, and social sciences, statistics, and mathematics.

Over 1,100 colleges and universities offer a bachelor's degree program in psychology; about 400, a master's; about 300, a Ph.D.; and about 10, a Psy.D. In addition, a growing number of professional schools of psychology not affiliated with colleges or universities offer the Psy.D. The American Psychological Association (APA) presently accredits Ph.D. training programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology as well as Psy.D. programs. In 1983, 129 colleges and universities offered fully approved programs in clinical psychology (including 7 Psy.D. programs); 37 in counseling psychology; and 24 in school psychology (including 1 Psy.D. program). APA also has approved about 130 internship facilities for doctoral training in clinical and counseling psy

Although financial aid is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain, some universities

Page 16

public policy, public administration, and business administration, will be attractive to employers seeking managerial and administrative personnel

Persons with a master's degree will continue to face very strong competition for academic positions, although some may find jobs in junior and community colleges. They also will face strong competition for the limited number of nonacademic sociologist positions open them. Some may find research and administrative jobs in research firms, business, and government. For example, sociologists with backgrounds in business and quantitative research methods may find opportunities in market research firms.

Bachelor's degree holders will find few opportunities for jobs as professional sociologists. As in the past, many graduates will take positions as trainees and assistants in business, industry, and government. As with advanced degree holders, training in quantitative research methods provides these graduates with the most marketable skills. Some may find positions in social welfare agencies. For those planning careers in law, journalism, business, social work, recreation, counseling, and other related disciplines, sociology provides an excellent background. Some who meet State certification requirements may enter high school teaching

Urban and Regional Planners

Earnings
According to a 1981 survey by the National
Research Council, the median annual salary of all doctoral social scientists (including so- ciologists) was $30,900. For those in educa-

tional institutions, it was $29,800; in State and

The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the average entrance salary for sociologists with a bachelor's degree was about $13,000 or $16,100 a year in 1982, depending upon the applicant's academic record. The starting salary for those with a master's degree was about $19,700 a year, and for those with a Ph.D., about $23,800. Sociologists in the Federal Government averaged around $30,000 a year in 1982.

In general, sociologists with the Ph.D. degree earn substantially higher salaries than those without the doctoral degree. Some sociologists supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other sources, such as consulting or counseling work.

Sources of Additional Information

Urban and regional planners often confer Additional information on careers, and gradu with land developers, civic leaders, and other ate departments of sociology is available from: public planning officials. They may prepare The American Sociological Association, 1722 N St.

materials for community relations programs, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

speak at civic meetings, and appear before leg. For information about careers in demogra

islative committees to explain their proposals. phy, contact:

In large organizations, planners usually spe

cialize in areas such as physical design, comPopulation Association of America, 806 15th St.

munity relations, and the renovation or reconNW., Suite 640, Washington, D.C. 20005.

struction of rundown business districts. In For information on careers in clinical so

small organizations, planners must be able to ciology, contact:

do several kinds of work. Clinical Sociology Association, c/o Jonathan Freed- man, President, Hutchings Psychiatric Center, P.O.

Working Conditions Box 27, Syracuse, N.Y. 13210.

Urban and regional planners spend most of their time in offices. To be familiar with areas that

they are developing, however, they occasion-

existing on it. Although most planners have a (D.O.T. 188.167-110 and 199.167-014)

scheduled 40-hour workweek, they sometimes

must attend evening or weekend meetings or Nature of the Work

public hearings with citizens' groups. Urban and regional planners, often called community or city planners, develop programs to Employment provide for future growth and revitalization of Urban and regional planners held about 21,000 urban, suburban, and rural communities. They jobs in 1982. Local government planning agenhelp local officials make decisions on social, cies—city, county, or regional—employ about economic, and environmental problems. 7 out of 10. An increasing proportion of public Planners examine community facilities such

agency plannners work in small jurisdictions as health clinics and schools to be sure these

with populations under 50,000. State and facilities can meet the demands placed upon

Federal agencies that deal with housing, transthem. They also keep abreast of the legal issues

portation, or environmental protection employ involved in community development or re

most of the rest.
development and changes in housing and build-
ing codes. Because suburban growth has in-

Many planners do consulting work, either creased the need for better ways of traveling to

part time in addition to a regular job, or full the urban center, the planner's job often in

time for a firm that provides services to private cludes designing new transportation systems

developers or government agencies. Some and parking facilities.

planners work for large land developers or reUrban and regional planners prepare for sit

search organizations.
uations that are likely to develop as a result of
population growth or social and economic
change. They estimate, for example, the com-
munity's long-range needs for housing, trans-
portation, and business and industrial sites.
Working within a framework set by the com-
munity government, they analyze and propose
alternative ways to achieve more efficient and attractive urban areas.

Before preparing plans for long-range com-
munity development, urban and regional plan-
ners prepare detailed studies that show the cur-
rent use of land for residential, business, and
community purposes. These reports include
such information as the location of streets,
highways, water and sewer lines, schools, li-
braries, and recreational sites. They also
provide information on the types of industries
in the community, characteristics of the popula-
tion, and employment and economic trends.
With this information, urban and regional plan-
ners propose ways of using undeveloped land
and design the layout of recommended build-
ings and other facilities such as subway sta-
tions. They also prepare materials that show
how their programs can be carried out and what

Urban and regional planners map current and they will cost.

proposed land uses.

Related Occupations
Sociologists are not the only people whose jobs
require an understanding of social processes
and institutions. Others whose work demands such expertise include anthropologists, econo-

mists, geographers, historians, political scien-

Page 17

Most ministers are employed by the five largest
Protestant churches-Baptist, Methodist,
Lutheran, Presbyterian, and Pentecostal.

All cities and most towns in the United States have at least one Protestant church with a fulltime minister. Some churches employ part-time ministers who are seminary students, retired ministers, or holders of secular jobs. Although most ministers are located in urban areas, many serve two or more congregations in less densely populated areas.

Training and Other Qualifications Educational requirements for entry into the Protestant ministry vary greatly. Some denominations have no formal educational requirements, and others ordain persons having various types of training in Bible colleges, Bible institutes, or liberal arts colleges.

In 1982, about 140 American Protestant theological institutes were accredited by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada. These admit only students who have received a bachelor's degree or its equivalent with a liberal arts major from an accredited college. Many denominations require a 3-year course of professional study in one of these accredited schools or seminaries after college graduation for the degree of master of divinity.

Recommended preseminary or undergraduate college courses include English, history, philosophy, natural sciences, social sciences, fine arts, music, religion, and foreign languages. These courses provide a knowledge of modern social, cultural, and scientific institutions and problems. However, students considering theological study should contact, at the earliest possible date, their denominations and the schools to which they intend to apply, to learn how to prepare for the program they hope to enter.

The standard curriculum for accredited theological schools consists of four major categories: Biblical, historical, theological, and practical. Courses of a practical nature include pastoral care, preaching, religious education, and administration. Many accredited schools require that students work under the supervision of a faculty member or experienced minister. Some institutions offer doctor of ministry degrees to students who have completed additional study, usually two or more years, and served at least two years as a minister. Scholarships and loans are available for students of theological institutions.

In general, each large denomination has its own school or schools of theology that reflect its particular doctrine, interests, and needs. However, many of these schools are open to students from other denominations. Several interdenominational schools associated with universities give both undergraduate and graduate training covering a wide range of theological points of view.

Persons who have denominational qualifications for the ministry usually are ordained after graduation from a seminary or after serving a probationary pastoral period. Denominations that do not require seminary training ordain clergy at various appointed times. For example,

the Evangelical minister may be ordained with National Council of Churches, Professional Church only a high school education.

Leadership, 475 Riverside Dr., New York, N.Y.
Men and women entering the clergy often 10027. begin their careers as pastors of small con- gregations or as assistant pastors in large churches.

Rabbis Job Outlook

The anticipated slow growth in church mem (D.O.T. 120.007-010)

Nature of the Work
ministers through the mid-1990's. The number

Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their conof persons being ordained has been increasing,

gregations, and teachers and interpreters of and this trend is likely to continue. As a result,

Jewish law and tradition. They conduct renew graduates of theological schools are ex

ligious services and deliver sermons on the

Sabbath and on Jewish holidays. Like other pected to face increasing competition in finding

clergy, rabbis conduct weddings and funeral positions and more experienced ministers will

services, visit the sick, help the poor, comfort face competition in moving to large con

the bereaved, supervise religious education gregations with greater responsibility. The sup

programs, engage in interfaith activities, and ply-demand situation will vary among de

involve themselves in community affairs. nominations, with more favorable prospects for Rabbis serving large congregations may ministers in Evangelical churches. Ministers

spend considerable time in administrative duwilling to work in rural areas also should have

ties, working with their staffs and committees. relatively favorable opportunities. Most of the Large congregations frequently have an associopenings for ministers through the mid-1990's

ate or assistant rabbi. Many assistant rabbis will arise from the need to replace those who

serve as educational directors. retire, die, or leave the ministry for other rea

Rabbis serve either Orthodox, Conservative, sons.

Reform, or Reconstructionist congregations. Employment alternatives for newly ordained

Regardless of their particular point of view, all Protestant ministers who are unable to find

Jewish congregations preserve the substance of positions in parishes include working in youth

Jewish religious worship. Congregations differ counseling, family relations, and welfare or

in the extent to which they follow the traditional ganizations, teaching in religious educational

form of worship for example, in the wearing institutions; and serving as chaplains in the

of head coverings, the use of Hebrew as the Armed Forces, hospitals, universities, and cor

language of prayer, or the use of music or a rectional institutions.

choir. The format of the worship service and,

therefore, the ritual that the rabbis use may vary Earnings

even among congregations belonging to the Salaries of Protestant clergy vary substantially, same branch of Judaism. depending on age, experience, denomination, Rabbis also may write for religious and lay size and wealth of congregation, and geograph- publications, and teach in theological seminic location. Based on limited information, the aries, colleges, and universities. estimated average annual income of Protestant ministers was about $16,500 in 1982. Fringe Working Conditions benefits, such as housing and transportation, Rabbis work long hours and are “on call” to may add as much as 25 percent to a minister's

visit the sick, comfort the bereaved, and counannual salary.

sel those who need it. Community and educa

tional activities may also require long or irregRelated Occupations

ular hours. Protestant ministers advise and counsel indi Some of their duties are intellectual and sedviduals and groups regarding their religious as entary, such as studying religious texts and rewell as personal, social, and vocational de searching and writing sermons and articles for velopment. Other occupations involved in this publication. type of work include social workers, clinical Rabbis have a good deal of independent auand counseling psychologists, teachers, and thority, since they have no formal hierarchy. counselors.

They are responsible only to the Board of Trust

ees of the congregations they serve. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in entering the Prot Employment estant ministry should seek the counsel of a In 1982, there were an estimated 6,500 practicminister or church guidance worker. Each theo ing rabbis. Of these, approximately 1,500 logical school can supply information on ad Orthodox, 800 Conservative, 700 Reform, and mission requirements. Prospective ministers 60 Reconstructionist rabbis had synagogues. also should contact the ordination supervision Most of the rest taught in Jewish Studies probody of their particular denomination for infor grams at colleges and universities. Others mation on special requirements for ordination. worked as chaplains in the military services, in

Occupational information about the Protes hospitals and other institutions, or in one of the tant ministry can also be obtained from: many Jewish community service agencies.

Page 18

Kindergarten and Elementary School

concentrate on the special needs of certain Most States as well as the District of Columgroups: Those who have reading problems, or bia have tenure laws that protect the jobs of those who do not speak English, for example.

teachers who have taught satisfactorily for a Much of a teacher's work occurs outside the certain number of years. A teacher normally

classroom. Teachers generally prepare lessons must serve a probationary period of 3 years Teachers

and grade papers at home, and attend faculty before attaining tenure. Tenure is not an auto

meetings and supervise extracurricular ac matic guarantee of job security, but it does (D.O.T. 092.227-010, -014; 094.224-010, .227-010

tivities after school. They also serve on faculty provide some protection. through -022; 099.224-010)

committees to revise curricula or to evaluate the

school's objectives and the students' perfor- Employment Nature of the Work

mance. To stay up to date on educational mate Kindergarten and elementary school teachers Kindergarten and elementary school teachers

rials and teaching techniques, they may partici held 1,366,000 jobs in 1982. Most elementary play a vital role in the development of children.

pate in workshops and other inservice activities school teachers work in public schools that have What is learned or not learned in these early

or take courses at local colleges and univer students in kindergarten through grade six;

sities. years can shape children's views of themselves

however, some teach in middle schools that and the world, and affect later success or failure In many schools, teacher aides do clerical cover the 3 or 4 years between the lower elein school and work.

work and supervise lunch and playground ac mentary grades and 4 years of high school. Less Kindergarten and elementary school teach

tivities so that teachers can give more individu than 14 percent of elementary school teachers ers introduce children to the basics of matheal attention to students.

work in private schools. matics, language, science, and social studies.

Since kindergarten and elementary school They try to instill good study habits and an Working Conditions

teachers work directly with students, their emappreciation for learning, and observe and eval Teachers spend much of their time standing or

ployment is distributed geographically much uate each child's performance and potential. walking. Kindergarten teachers may join their

the same as population. Elementary school teachers may use films, students on the floor to finger paint, cut out slides, computers or instructional games to help pictures, or do other crafts.

Training, Other Qualifications, and children learn in creative ways. They also ar

Advancement

A teacher may often have to deal with disruprange class trips, speakers, and class projects. tive, disrespectful, and sometimes even violent

All 50 States and the District of Columbia reTeachers keep track of their students' social children. This can be physically and emo

quire public elementary school teachers to be development and health. They observe each tionally taxing. Giving appropriate attention to

certified by State education authorities. Some child's behavior and discuss problems—such as disabled pupils also adds to a teacher's load.

States require teachers in private and parochial habitual resistance to authority—with the par

schools to be certified as well. Generally, cer

Most elementary school teachers work a traents. Teachers also report health problems to ditional 2-semester, 10-month school year with

tification is granted by the State Board of Eduparents and school health officials. a 2-month vacation. Teachers on a 10-month

cation, the State Superintendent of Education, Most elementary school teachers instruct a schedule may teach in the summer session or

or a Certification Advisory Committee. group of children in several subjects while take other jobs. Many enroll in college courses

Teachers may be certified to teach either the providing individual attention as much as pos or special workshops. Some teachers in year

early childhood grades (usually nursery school sible. In some schools, two or more teachers round schools work 8-week sessions, are off 1

through the third grade) or the elementary team teach and are jointly responsible for a week between sessions, and have a long mid

grades (grades 1 through 6 or 8). Some teachers group of students or for a particular subject. An winter break. This 12-month schedule makes it

obtain certification to teach special education or increasing number of elementary school teach difficult for teachers to take supplemental jobs.

reading at the elementary school level. ers specialize and teach one or two subjects to In most States the public schools must be in

Requirements for certification vary by State, several classes. Some teach subjects such as session a minimum number of days, usually

and school systems may have additional hiring music, art, or physical education, while others 180.

requirements. In all States and the District of Columbia, however, public kindergarten or elementary school teachers must have a bachelor's degree from an institution with an approved teacher education program. Teacher training programs include a variety of liberal arts courses as well as student teaching and prescribed professional education courses. Almost half of all States require teachers to earn graduate degrees within a certain number of years after being hired.

Twenty-one States require (or will require by 1985) applicants for certification to be tested for competency either in basic skills, subject matter, teaching skills, or a combination of these. Half the States have health, citizenship, or character requirements. Complete information on requirements for elementary school teaching is available from State departments of education or superintendents of schools.

Information about whether a particular teacher training program is approved can be obtained from the institution offering the training or from the State department of education. Many States have reciprocity agreements that allow teachers who are certified in one State to become certified in another.

Kindergarten and elementary school teachJob prospects for kindergarten and elementary school teachers are expected to improve.

ers should be creative, dependable, patient and

Page 19

Most faculty members enter the profession as instructors and have at least a master's degree. Because competition for positions is so keen, many 4-year colleges and universities consider only doctoral degree holders for entry level academic appointments. At 2-year institutions a doctorate may not be considered advantageous.

Doctoral programs usually require 4 years or more of study beyond the bachelor's degree, including intensive research for a doctoral dissertation that makes an original contribution to the candidate's field of study. A working knowledge of one or more foreign languages (or computer languages) and, in many fields, advanced mathematical and statistical techniques are often required as well. Students should consider carefully their academic potential and motivation before beginning doctoral studies.

Advancement through the academic ranks in 4-year institutions usually requires a doctorate plus college teaching experience, even in institutions that hire master's degree holders as instructors.

Academic, administrative, and professional Most college faculty members enter the profession as instructors and must have at least a master's

contributions affect advancement opportunities degree.

in this field. Research, publication, consulting

work, and other forms of professional recogniIn addition to preparation, instruction, and being exposed to new ideas and sharing in the

tion all have a bearing on a college faculty

member's chances of promotion. research, college and university faculty mem growth and development of students.

College faculty need inquiring, analytical bers may advise students and work with student

minds and a strong desire to pursue and disorganizations. Department heads also have ad Employment

seminate knowledge. As teachers and reministrative duties. College and university faculty held 744,000

searchers, they should be able to communicate jobs in 1982. About two out of three faculty well, both orally and in writing. And as models Working Conditions

members holding the rank of professor, associ for their students, they should be dedicated to College faculty members generally have flexi ate professor, assistant professor, or instructor the principles of academic integrity and intelble schedules, dividing their time among teach were full time, and almost one out of three were lectual honesty. College faculty need to be open ing, research, advising, and administrative part time instructional staff. Approximately to new ideas—from their students, peers, and responsibilities. They may work staggered 30,000 persons were full-time junior instruc the nonacademic community. hours and teach classes at night. The normal

tors. In addition, thousands of graduate stuteaching load usually is heavier in 2-year and dents, employed as assistant instructors, teach

Job Outlook community colleges where less emphasis is ing fellows, teaching assistants, or laboratory Employment of college and university faculty is placed on research and publication. assistants—taught part time.

expected to decline through the mid-1990's. Over 90 percent of all full-time college and

Public institutions, which constitute less

The basic factor underlying the demand for university faculty work in institutions that have than one-half of all colleges and universities,

college faculty is enrollment. During the 1960's tenure systems (the assurance of continuing employ over 70 percent of all full-time instruc

and the 1970's, enrollments rose and employemployment with freedom from dismissal tional faculty. They employ about two-thirds of

ment of college faculty increased. The steady without cause and due process). Nearly twothe full-time faculty in all universities and 4

rise in the number of persons attending college thirds of these faculty members are tenured. year colleges, and over 90 percent in all 2-year

reflected not only growth in the number of 18- to Under a tenure system, a faculty member usuinstitutions.

24-year-olds, but an increase in the proportion ally receives 1-year contracts during a proba

Nearly one-third of full-time faculty teach in

of college-age persons who actually went to tionary period lasting at least 3 years and or

universities; almost one-half work in 4-year college. Enrollments, which peaked during the dinarily no more than 7 years; some universities colleges; and over one-fifth teach in 2-year col

early 1980's, are expected to decline through award 2- or 3-year contracts. After the probaleges.

the mid-1990's as the traditional college-age tionary period, institutions consider faculty

A few part-time faculty work in more than population not only decreases but the propormembers for tenure. Declining enrollments and one institution of higher education. Others are

tion of those going to college remains unbudgetary constraints, however, have made ten primarily employed outside of an academic set

changed or declines slightly. A growing ure increasingly difficult for faculty members ting—in government, private industry, or in

number of adults have entered college in recent to gain. Colleges and universities are turning to nonacademic research. These people—some

years, many on a part-time basis, but adult short-term contracts and to part-time faculty to

times referred to as “adjunct faculty”—may enrollments are not expected to completely offsave money.

teach as little as one course a semester. set the decline in traditional-age college stuFew professions offer vacation arrangements

dents. Employment opportunities may be better as attractive as those in teaching. In addition to Training, Other Qualifications, and in community colleges that emphasize prothe summer months during which faculty mem Advancement

grams for adult learners. In general, however, bers may conduct research, prepare course and The overwhelming majority of full-time col fewer students will mean fewer college faculty teaching materials, teach short-term summer lege and university faculty are classified in four members. classes, travel, or pursue hobbies, they also academic ranks: Professors, associate pro Because employment of college and univerhave breaks during other school holidays. Col fessors, assistant professors, and instructors. A sity faculty will decline, job openings will relege faculty also have the intangible rewards of small proportion are classified as lecturers. sult entirely from replacement needs. In any

Page 20

Employment

State certification requirements for public after 1984; secondary school enrollments will Librarians held 150,000 jobs in 1982; in addi school librarians vary widely. Most States re start increasing after 1990. In some commution, audiovisual specialists held 6,300 jobs in quire that school librarians be certified as teach nities, declining enrollments and fiscal conlibrary/media centers. School and academic li ers. A degree in library science may not be straints are likely to result in staff cutbacks, and braries together accounted for roughly 7 out of required, for, in many schools, the library has some school librarians may be transferred to 10 librarians. Public libraries and special librar

become the “learning resources center” and is classroom teaching. In other localities, ies employed the remainder. A small number of

staffed by media personnel with a variety of however, population growth will spur demand librarians served as consultants or administered

educational backgrounds. Although some me for educational personnel, including librarians. State and Federal library programs.

dia professionals have a bachelor's or master's Opportunities should be favorable for liMost librarians work in cities and towns.

in library science, others have a degree in media brarians with specialized knowledge in scienThose attached to bookmobile units serve wide

resources, educational technology, or au tific and technical fields including medicine,

diovisual communications. State departments law, business, engineering, and the physical ly scattered population groups.

of education can provide information about and life sciences. These jobs are available in specific requirements.

special libraries and research libraries, for the Training, Other Qualifications, and Some States require certification of public most part. Individuals with expertise in comAdvancement

librarians employed in municipal, county, or puterized library systems will also be in deA master's degree in library science (M.L.S.) is regional library systems. State library agencies mand, because of the widespread use of comnecessary to obtain an entry level professional can provide information about these require puters to store and retrieve information and to position in most public, academic, and special ments.

handle routine operations such as ordering, catlibraries. About 120 schools offered such de

In the Federal Government, which currently aloging, and circulation control. Individuals grees in 1983. However, most employers prefer hires about 120 librarians a year, beginning

with a background in cataloging or in working graduates of one of the 60 library education positions require completion of a 4-year college

with children should also find good job opporprograms accredited by the American Library course and a master's degree in library science,

tunities. Association in U.S. Educational preparation

or demonstration of the equivalent in experi-
ence and education by a passing grade on an

Information management outside the tradifor school librarianship is more diverse, reflect

tional library setting, a rapidly developing examination. ing the considerable differences among the

Scholarships for training in library science

field, is expected to offer excellent employment States in standards and certification requireare available from library schools, large librar

opportunities for library school graduates and ments for public school librarians. ies, and library associations. Loans and assis

practicing librarians with backgrounds in inforMost graduate schools of library science retantships also are available.

mation science and library automation. Private quire graduation from an accredited 4-year col

Because of an abundant supply of qualified industry, consulting firms, and government lege or university and good grades. A broad jobseekers, employers in some localities now

agencies all need qualified people to set up and undergraduate background, with well defined require some experience for what used to be

maintain information systems. major and minor areas of study, is appropriate

entry level positions. Graduates who have parpreparation for graduate library education. ticipated in internship programs and work

Earnings Some library schools require a reading knowlstudy programs or who have worked part time

Salaries of librarians vary by type of library, the edge of at least one foreign language. may have an employment advantage over other

individual's qualifications, and the size and loA typical graduate program in library scinew graduates.

cation of the library. ence includes basic courses in the foundations

Experienced librarians may advance to ad

Starting salaries of graduates of library of librarianship, including the history of books ministrative positions. A master's degree in

school master's degree programs accredited by and printing, intellectual freedom and cen business or public administration may help to

the American Library Association averaged sorship, and the role of libraries in society. obtain such positions.

$15,633 a year in 1981, and ranged from Other basic courses cover material selection

$14,132 in public libraries to $16,748 in special and processing; reference tools; and user serv Job Outlook

libraries. The median salary for experienced ices. Advanced courses are offered in such Employment of librarians is expected to grow

special librarians was $27,000 a year in 1982. areas as resources for children or young adults; more slowly than the average for all occupa

The median salary for experienced librarians in classification, cataloging, indexing, and ab tions through the mid-1990's. Most job open

college and university libraries was $23,500 in stracting; library administration; and library au ings will result from the need to replace li

1983. Librarians in the Federal Government tomation. Because virtually all aspects of rou brarians who transfer to other fields, retire, or averaged about $28,800 in 1982. tine library operation are subject to automation, leave the occupation for other reasons.

The usual paid vacation after a year's service many library schools encourage students to The demand for individuals with library

is 3 to 4 weeks. Vacations may be longer in take courses in computer and information sci skills outside traditional settings is expected to

school libraries and somewhat shorter in those help ease the tight job market for librarians. operated by business and industry. The master of library science (M.L.S.) pro Furthermore, the number of library school gram represents a general, all-round prepara graduates, which has been declining since the

Related Occupations tion for library work, but some people spe mid-1970's, may continue to drift downward. Librarians play an important role in the transfer cialize in a particular area such as archives, Therefore, the oversupply could abate, and em

of knowledge and ideas by providing people media, or library automation. A few M.L.S. ployment prospects brighten.

with access to the information they need and degree holders return to library school for an Employment growth in public libraries is want. Jobs requiring similar analytical, organiadditional year of study to earn a certificate of likely to be slower than it has been during the

zational, and communicative skills include aradvanced study. A Ph.D. degree in library sci last two decades. Faced with rising materials

chivists, information scientists, museum curaence is advantageous for a teaching position or costs and tighter operating budgets, many li

tors, publishers' representatives, research anafor a top administrative post, particularly in a braries are expected to hire fewer additional lysts, information brokers, and records mancollege or university library or in a large library librarians.

agers. system.

Employment of academic librarians is ex

Sources of Additional Information For those interested in special libraries or pected to decline slightly, a reflection of the research libraries, a master's degree, doctorate, overall decline in college enrollments expected

Information on librarianship, including a listing or professional degree in the appropriate sub through the mid-1990's. The situation will vary

of accredited education programs and informaject specialization is highly desirable. And in from institution to institution, however.

tion on scholarships or loans, may be obtained academic libraries, an advanced degree may be In school libraries, a large sector, slow em

from: essential for promotion to a senior level posi ployment growth is foreseen, overall. Elemen American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., tion.

tary school enrollments are projected to rise Chicago, Ill. 60611.

Page 21

Chiropractors treat patients primarily by manual manipulation.

about 70 percent were in solo practice—that is, they had no partners. Some were salaried assistants of established practitioners or worked for chiropractic clinics. A small number taught or conducted research at chiropractic colleges.

Chiropractors often locate in small communities—about half work in cities of 50,000 inhabitants or less.

undergraduate study, including courses in En Sources of Additional Information
glish, the social sciences, chemistry, biology, The board of licensing in each State capital can
physics, and mathematics.

supply information on State licensing require- Chiropractic colleges emphasize courses in ments for chiropractors.

manipulation and spinal adjustments. Most of General information on chiropractic as a ca-

American Chiropractic Association, 1916 Wilson
During the first 2 years, most chiropractic col-

Blvd., Arlington, Va. 22201.
leges emphasize classroom and laboratory work in subjects such as anatomy, physiology,

International Chiropractors Association, 1901 L St. and biochemistry, while the last 2 years stress

NW., Suite 800, Washington, D.C. 20036. clinical experience. Students completing chi For a list of chiropractic colleges, as well as ropractic training earn the degree of Doctor of general information on chiropractic as a career, Chiropractic (D.C.).

contact: Chiropractic requires a keen sense of obser

Council on Chiropractic Education, 3209 Ingersoll vation to detect physical abnormalities and con

Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50312. siderable hand dexterity but not unusual strength or endurance. Persons desiring to be-

For information on requirements for admiscome chiropractors should be able to work in sion to a specific chiropractic college, contact dependently and handle responsibility. The

the admissions office. ability to work with detail is important. Sympa-

thy and understanding are desirable qualities

Most newly licensed chiropractors either set Dentists
up a new practice or purchase an established
one. Because of the financial investment neces (D.O.T. 072)
sary to open and equip an office, many first
work for established chiropractors to acquire
the experience and the funds needed.

Nature of the Work

Dentists examine teeth and tissues of the mouth Job Outlook

to diagnose diseases or abnormalities. They Job opportunities for chiropractors through the

take X-rays, fill cavities, straighten teeth, and mid-1990's will reflect employment growth that

treat gum diseases. Dentists extract teeth and

substitute artificial dentures designed for the is expected to be about as fast as the average for all occupations plus the need to replace experi

individual patient. They also perform correc

tive surgery of the gums and supporting bones. enced chiropractors who leave the profession.

In addition, they may clean teeth and provide Demand for chiropractic is related to the ability of patients to pay for services, either

other preventive services.

Dentists spend most of their time with padirectly or through health insurance, and to public acceptance of the profession, which ap

tients, but may devote some time to laboratory

work such as making dentures and inlays. Most pears to be growing. At present, newly-graduated chiropractors are entering practice with

dentists, however-particularly those in large little difficulty. Enrollments in chiropractic col

cities—send their laboratory work to commer

cial firms. Some dentists employ dental leges have grown dramatically, however, and as

hygienists to clean patients' teeth and provide more students graduate, new chiropractors may

instruction for patient self-care. Dentists may encounter competition establishing a practice

also employ other assistants to perform office in areas where other practitioners already are

work, assist in “chairside” duties, and provide located.

therapeutic services under their supervision.

(The work of dental hygienists and dental assisEarnings

tants is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) In chiropractic, as in other types of independent

Most dentists are general practitioners who practice, earnings are relatively low in the be

provide many types of dental care; about 15 ginning. From the limited data available, new

percent practice in one of the eight specialty graduates who worked as associates to estab

areas recognized by the American Dental Assolished practitioners earned more than $15,000 a

ciation (ADA). The largest group of specialists year in 1982. Experienced chiropractors aver are orthodontists, vho straighten teeth. The aged about $45,500, after expenses, according

next largest group, oral surgeons, operate on to a survey conducted by the American Chi

the mouth and jaws. The remainder specialize ropractic Association.

in pedodontics (dentistry for children);

periodontics (treating the gums); prosthodonRelated Occupations

tics (making artificial teeth or dentures); endoChiropractors diagnose, treat, and work to pre dontics (root canal therapy); public health denvent diseases, disorders, and injuries. They em tistry; and oral pathology (diseases of the phasize the importance of the nervous system mouth). for good health. Others whose professions re About 5 percent of all dentists teach in dental quire similar skills include acupuncturists, au schools, do research, or administer dental diologists, dentists, naturopathic doctors, op health programs on a full-time basis. Many tometrists, osteopaths, podiatrists, speech pa dentists in private practice do this work on a thologists, and veterinarians.

part-time basis.

Training, Other Qualifications, and
Advancement
All 50 States and the District of Columbia regu-
late the practice of chiropractic and grant li-
censes to chiropractors who meet certain
educational requirements and pass a State board examination. Many States have re- ciprocity agreements that permit chiropractors already licensed in another State to obtain

license without taking an examination.

The type of practice permitted and the educational requirements for a license vary considerably from one State to another, but in general, State licensing boards require successful completion of a 4-year chiropractic course following 2 years of college. Thirty-eight State boards recognize only academic training in chiropractic colleges accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education. Some States require specific college courses such as English, chemistry, biology, or physics. Several States require that chiropractors pass a basic science examination. The National Board of Chiropractic Examiners' test given to chiropractic students is accepted by 47 State boards in place of a State examination.

In 1982, 9 of the 15 chiropractic colleges in the United States were fully accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education; 5 others were recognized candidates working toward accreditation. All chiropractic colleges require applicants to have a minimum of 2 years of

Page 22

odiatrists diagnose and treat foot problems.

ociation of American Medical Colleges, Suite disease, for example—they refer the patient to a in a specialty. Federal, State, and private loans One Dupont Circle NW., Washington, D.C. physician while continuing to treat the foot are available for students to pursue full-time problem.

study leading to a degree in podiatric medicine. general information on osteopathic medicine as a

More than 4 of every 5 podiatrists are gener Persons planning a career in podiatry should cer, contact:

alists who provide all types of food care. have scientific aptitude and manual dexterity,

However, some podiatrists specialize in foot and like detailed work. A good business sense erican Osteopathic Association, Department of

surgery, orthopedics (bone, muscle, and joint and congeniality also are assets as in any medilic Relations, 212 East Ohio St., Chicago, Ill.

disorders), podopediatrics (children's foot ail cal profession. 11.

ments), or podogeriatrics (foot problems of the Most newly licensed podiatrists set up their erican Association of Colleges of Osteopathic elderly). Regular vigorous exercise contributes own practices. Some purchase established dicine, 4720 Montgomery Lane, Bethesda, Md. to physical health and emotional well-being, practices, or take salaried positions to gain the 14.

and with the growing popularity of jogging, experience and money they need to begin their Information on Federal scholarships and

tennis, racquetball, and other fast-moving own practices. ns is available from the directors of student

sports, the specialty of sports medicine is showancial aid at schools of medicine and osing rapid growth.

Job Outlook pathic medicine. Information about Armed

Employment of podiatrists is expected to grow rces Health Professions Scholarships is availWorking Conditions

much faster than the average for all occupations le from any local military recruiting office. Podiatrists usually work independently in their

through the mid-1990's as podiatry continues to Persons who wish to practice medicine or

own offices. They generally work 40 hours a gain recognition as a health profession, causing teopathic medicine in a particular State week, and they set their hours to suit their

more people to turn to podiatrists for foot care. ould inquire about licensure requirements dipractice.

Health insurance is not a barrier, for public and ctly from the board of examiners of that State.

private programs generally cover podiatry servEmployment

ices. Broader participation in fast-moving Podiatrists held about 13,000 jobs in 1982.

sports that tend to aggravate foot disorders will While the majority of podiatrists are in private spur demand, as will the growing number of practice, some are employed by other

older people, many of whom have foot probPodiatrists

podiatrists. Other podiatrists are employed by lems.

hospitals, health maintenance organizations, 0.0.T. 079.101-022)

In addition to opportunities created by rapid and podiatric medical colleges. The Veterans

growth in employment, many openings will Administration and public health departments result from the need to replace podiatrists who Nature of the Work also employ some podiatrists.

retire or stop working for other reasons. OpporBecause we use them so often in walking, run

Podiatrists work mainly in large cities. tunities for graduates to establish new pracing, or just standing, we are constantly and

tices, as well as to enter salaried positions, painfully aware when our feet hurt. A growing Training, Other Qualifications, and

should be favorable. number of foot sufferers visit a doctor of

Advancement podiatric medicine, or podiatrist, for relief. All States and the District of Columbia require a

Earnings Podiatrists diagnose and treat diseases and dislicense for the practice of podiatry. To qualify

Newly licensed podiatrists build their practices orders of the foot. They perform surgery; fit for a license, an applicant must graduate from

over a number of years. Income during the first corrective devices; and prescribe drugs, physan accredited college of podiatric medicine and

several years is usually low but generally rises cal therapy, and proper shoes. To help in diag pass a written and oral examination. Eight

significantly as the practice grows. From the noses, they take X-rays and perform or preStates-Arizona, California, Georgia, Michi

limited information available, a net income of cribe blood and other pathological tests. gan, New Jersey, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, and

about $70,000 a year is common for established Podiatrists treat a variety of foot conditions, Virginia—require applicants to serve a 1-year

podiatrists. Newly licensed podiatrists hired by ncluding corns, bunions, calluses, ingrown residency in a hospital or clinic following grad

Veterans Administration hospitals earned startoenails, skin and nail diseases, deformed toes, uation. Most of the States grant licenses with

ing salaries between $24,508 and $29,374 in ind arch disabilities. Whenever podiatrists find out further examination to podiatrists already

early 1983. ymptoms of a medical disorder affecting other

licensed by another State. Jarts of the body—arthritis, diabetes, or heart

The six colleges of podiatric medicine are located in California, Illinois, Iowa, New York,

Related Occupations
Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Minimum entrance

Podiatrists work to prevent, diagnose, and treat requirements at these schools include 3 years of

diseases, disorders, and injuries. Other occupaundergraduate college work with courses in En

tions that require similar skills include auglish, chemistry, biology or zoology, physics,

diologists, chiropractors, dentists, opand mathematics. However, most entrants sur

tometrists, osteopathic physicians, physicians, pass the minimum requirements. About 90 per

speech pathologists, and veterinarians. cent of the class entering in 1982 held at least a bachelor's degree, and the average enrollee had

Sources of Additional Information an overall grade point average of “B” or better.

Information on license requirements in a parAll colleges of podiatric medicine require ap

ticular State is available from that State's board plicants to earn an acceptable score on the Med of examiners. ical College Admissions Test.

Information on colleges of podiatric mediOf the 4 years in podiatry school, the first 2 cine, entrance requirements, curriculums, and are spent in classroom instruction and laborato student financial aid is available from: ry work in anatomy, bacteriology, chemistry,

American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medipathology, physiology, pharmacology, and

cine, 20 Chevy Chase Circle NW., Washington, D.C. other basic sciences. During the final 2 years, 20015. students gain clinical experience while continuing their academic studies. The degree of

For additional information on podiatry as a Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.) is

career, contact: awarded to graduates. Additional education and American Podiatry Association, 20 Chevy Chase Cirexperience generally are necessary to practice cle NW., Washington, D.C. 20015.

Page 23

Therapists, and Physician Assistants

The health professionals described in this sec Therapists use a variety of techniques to help teach or do consulting work in addition to their tion of the Handbook care for the sick, help the patients who are injured, disabled, or emo primary job. disabled, and advise individuals and commu tionally disturbed to regain physical or emo Pharmacists, physical therapists, and regisnities on ways of maintaining and improving tional independence. Physical therapists use tered nurses must have a license to practice. their health. Nursing is by far the largest of exercise and other treatments to help patients Students considering one of these careers these occupations. Registered nurses held more

increase strength, mobility, and coordination. should investigate the licensing requirements in than 1.3 million jobs in 1982. The other occupa

Occupational therapists teach skills of every the State where they plan to work. Completions described here vary in size from phar

day living, including vocational skills, to peo menting the occupational licensure laws is a macists (about 151,000 jobs) to physician assistants (22,000 jobs).

ple who are disabled or handicapped. Their system of voluntary credentialing, in which Registered nurses are an essential part of the

goal is to help patients adapt to their limitations professional associations and other nongoverhealth team. They work primarily in hospitals,

and learn to be as self-sufficient as possible. mental bodies attest to an individual's compewhere they provide direct patient care, assist in

Speech pathologists and audiologists work tence through certification or registration.

with children and adults who have speech, lansurgery and diagnostic procedures, train and

Employment in these occupations is exsupervise other members of the staff, organize guage, or hearing impairments. Rehabilitation pected to grow faster than the average for all health education activities for patients and the

counselors, whose work is closely related to occupations through the mid-1990's. Populacommunity, and handle administrative tasks. A that of therapists, are discussed in the Hand tion growth, especially the increase in the growing number work in long-term care facili

book statement on vocational and education number of older people, will spur demand for ties such as nursing homes, rehabilitation cen counselors.

health care. Since the number of persons age 75 ters, and mental hospitals. Some engage in A number of other therapists aid in re and over is projected to rise very rapidly in the community health, industrial, or school nurs habilitation. Orientation therapists for the years ahead, the need for a broad range of ing, while others work in clinics or physicians' blind help newly blinded persons learn to move health and social support services for older peroffices or do private duty nursing. With addi about unassisted; to handle such everyday ac sons will escalate. However, the availability of tional training and experience, registered tivities as dressing, grooming, eating, and public and private funds to pay for health care nurses may assume the responsibilities of nurse using the telephone; and to communicate by will continue to determine which services are practitioners, nurse midwives, or nurse anes means of Braille, reading machines, or other actually in place. thetists. In these expanded roles, nurses per devices. Recreation therapists, also known as Health insurance terms that prescribe which form tasks that otherwise would be performed therapeutic recreation workers, are trained to services are reimbursable affect both the indusby a physician.

use sports, games, crafts, and hobbies as part of try and occupational “mix” of health sector Three principal kinds of nursing education the rehabilitation of ill, disabled, or handicap- employment. Increased coverage for hospice programs-diploma, associate degree, and ped persons. (See the statement on recreation services, for example, would stimulate demand bachelor's degree—prepare students for careers workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Art, for nurses, social workers, and pastoral counas registered nurses. The differences should be dance, and music therapists help patients re selors in hospices, although volunteers provide understood by the prospective nursing student. solve physical, emotional, or social problems most hospice care. Similarly, measures to enHowever, all nursing education programs share through nonverbal means of communication. courage greater use of nurse practitioners, the goals of teaching nurses the scientific basis Horticultural therapists use gardening for nurse midwives, and physician assistants of modern nursing practice, familiarizing them therapeutic purposes—as a group activity for would spur employment in those occupations. with the latest treatment and rehabilitation tech persons with mental or emotional problems, for Currently, a broad-based effort to contain the niques, and equipping them to understand pa example. A bachelor's degree with a health rate of increase in health care costs is underway. tients' medical, social, and psychological professions specialization is standard prepara Although the results of various cost conneeds.

tion for most therapy occupations. For some tainment strategies are difficult to predict, it is The relatively new occupation of physician jobs, a master's degree is essential.

clear that redesign of the financing system assistant (PA) involves direct patient care by Dietitians and pharmacists also use special could mean sweeping changes in the organizaworkers who are trained to perform many of the skills and expertise to assist sick or disabled tion and delivery of health care in the United more routine tasks normally carried out by a persons, although they do not provide direct States. This could alter the rate of employment physician. These include taking medical histo patient care. Having completed college pro growth and cause some occupations to diverge ries, doing routine examinations, and making grams that include bacteriology, chemistry, and from current projections. In addition to new hospital rounds. Physician assistants work un other sciences, these workers draw on scientific jobs created by future growth, many openings der a physician, usually right in the office. knowledge to devise therapeutic treatments or will occur due to replacement needs. Some, however, practice in rural health clinics, give advice on the effects of diet or drugs. Both Several other sections of the Handbook conprisons, and other places where physicians are fields offer opportunities to practice in a variety tain statements on health careers. Check the not readily available. Training commonly lasts of settings. Dietitians plan diets to meet the alphabetical index at the back to locate the state2 years. Admission to PA training is highly nutritional needs of groups as diverse as hospi ments on health services administrators, dental competitive, and most students already have a tal patients, school children, prisoners, and assistants, medical assistants, nursing aides, background in one of the health professions. hotel guests. Pharmacists generally work in orderlies, and attendants, dispensing opticians Legal provisions permitting physician assis hospitals or community pharmacies where they and ophthalmic laboratory technicians, and tants to practice are not uniform throughout the dispense drugs and medicines prescribed by dental laboratory technicians. country, in part because the occupation is so health practitioners. Like other health profes Books and brochures on health careers are

sionals, dietitians and pharmacists sometimes available in libraries, counseling centers, and

Page 24

Alternative titles sometimes used by these Physical therapists practice in a variety of settings.

workers are MEDEX, physician associate, and

community health medic. Some PA's assist Percent employed by work setting, 1982

physicians in such specialty areas as pediatrics

or surgery. They perform routine procedures 0 10 20 30 40

50

such as physical examinations, provide

postoperative care, and assist during compliHospitals

cated medical procedures such as cardiac

catheterizations. These specialist PA's include Offices of therapists/

child health associates, orthopedic physician physicians

assistants, urologic physician assistants, surRehabilitation centers

geon assistants, and emergency room physi

cian assistants. Nursing homes

Working Conditions

Physician assistants work in the same places as Home health agencies

physicians. Hospitals, clinics, and physicians'

offices usually provide a comfortable, wellSchool systems

lighted environment, although PA's must often

stand for long periods and do considerable Other

walking

The workweek and schedule vary according SOURCE: American Physical Therapy Association

to the setting. Some emergency room PA's work 24-hour shifts twice weekly, and others work three 12-hour shifts each week. The work

week of PA's who work in physicians' offices this level of care for elderly patients, and the Related Occupations

may include some night office hours or early availability of funds to pay for it.

Physical therapists are concerned with the treat morning hospital rounds to visit patients. PA's Only part of the increasing number of per ment and rehabilitation of persons with phys in clinics usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. sons requiring rehabilitation services will stem ical or mental disabilities or disorders. They from the aging of the population. Young per may use exercise, massage, heat, water, elec Employment sons, too, need physical therapy. Advances in tricity, and various therapeutic devices to help Physician assistants held about 22,000 jobs in medical technology have saved lives that only a their patients gain independence. Others who

1982. They most commonly work for physifew years ago would have been lost: Children do similar work include occupational

cians in private practice. However, hospitals with severe birth defects, for example, and car therapists, speech pathologists and au employ an increasing proportion of PA's—now crash victims, many of whom are teenagers and

diologists, orthotists, prosthetists, and respira about 25 percent. A small but growing number young adults. Future biomedical developments tory therapists.

work for health maintenance organizations, are certain to permit even more people to sur

other prepaid health plans, or clinics. vive traumas that in the past would have been Sources of Additional Information

Despite efforts to encourage physicians to fatal, thereby creating a need for rehabilitative Additional information on a career as a physical practice where they are needed most

, many

rural areas and inner cities remain underserved. therapist and a list of accredited educational

Almost 20 percent of all Americans live in Job prospects in physical therapy should be programs in physical therapy are available

counties with a population of less than 50,000, from: very good through the mid-1990's. New gradu

yet only 8 percent of all active physicians pracates are in great demand, and the number of

American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North tice in these areas. The 45 percent of all PA's people completing training programs is ex Fairfax St., Alexandria, Va. 22314.

who practice there provide badly needed health pected to fall short of that needed to fill job

care service. openings. Total enrollments in accredited phys

Although most PA's in medically underical therapy programs have remained relatively

served areas are associated with physicians in stable since the mid-1970's. If program comple

private practice, some work in clinics, where a tions remain at current levels and demand for

physician may be available just 1 or 2 days each rehabilitation services continues to increase, (D.O.T. 079.364-018)

week. For the rest of the week, a PA working prospects for jobseekers should become even

with one or more nurses, technicians, or medimore favorable than they are today.

cal assistants provides all health care services. Nature of the Work

PA's in these clinics usually have quick teleEarnings

The occupation of physician assistant (PA) phone access to a physician for consultation, Starting salaries in hospitals for new physical

came into being during the 1960's, when physi but experience has shown that normally few

cians were in short supply. Additional educa consultations are needed. The Rural Health therapy graduates averaged about $18,000 a

tion enabled medical corpsmen trained during Clinics Service Act of 1977 helped promote this year in 1982, according to a national survey

the Vietnam conflict as well as some nurses and type of practice by making reimbursement by conducted by the University of Texas Medical

others with patient-care experience to relieve Medicare easier; currently, over 10 percent of Branch. A 1982 survey conducted by the Amer

physicians of many essential but time-consum all PA's practice in one of these clinics. ican Physical Therapy Association disclosed

ing tasks. PA's interview patients, take medical that the average earnings for all salaried phys histories, perform physical examinations, order Training, Other Qualifications, and ical therapists was $23,000 and some earned laboratory tests, make tentative diagnoses, and Advancement more than $35,000 a year.

prescribe appropriate treatments. Studies show In the early years of the occupation, informal Beginning therapists employed by the they have the ability to care for 8 out of 10 training was not uncommon, but today, nearly Federal Government earned starting salaries of people who visit a family practitioner's office in all States require that new PA's complete an $15,000 a year in 1982. The average salary paid any one day. PA's, however, always work under approved program. Approximately 15,000 PA's therapists was about $23,700 annually; super the direction of a licensed “supervising physi had completed such training programs by 1982. visory therapists may earn more than $33,000. cian.”

Fifty-four educational programs for primary

Page 25

earned an average salary of $19,700 a year in 1982.

In 1982, the Federal Government paid respiratory therapists with 2 years of CAHEA-accredited postsecondary school training starting salaries of about $12,000 to $13,000.

Respiratory therapy workers in hospitals receive the same benefits as other hospital personnel, including health insurance, retirement benefits, and vacations and sick leave. Some employers provide tuition assistance and other educational benefits, uniforms, and parking.

Related Occupations
Respiratory therapy workers, under the super-
vision of a physician, administer respiratory
therapy care and life support to patients with
heart and lung difficulties. Other workers who care for, treat, or train people to improve their physical well-being include: Dialysis techni- cians, emergency medical technicians, li-

censed practical nurses, registered nurses, oc-

Sources of Additional Information Information concerning education programs is available from:

American Association for Respiratory Therapy, 1720 Explaining the steps in respiratory therapy treatment is necessary to ensure the patient's cooperation. Regal Row, Suite 112, Dallas, Tex. 75235.

Information on the credentialing of respiraworkers must pay attention to detail, follow occupations through the mid-1990's as a result tory therapy workers can be obtained from: instructions, and work as part of a team. Oper of population growth, widespread accessibility

The National Board for Respiratory Care, Inc., 11015 ating complicated respiratory therapy equip

of hospital and surgical care through public and West 75th Terrace, Shawnee Mission, Kans. 66214. ment requires mechanical ability and manual

private health insurance, and the development dexterity. High school students interested in

For the current list of CAHEA-approved proof new diagnostic and treatment procedures in this field are encouraged to take courses in

grams for respiratory therapy occupations, this field. Most openings, however, will arise

write: health, biology, mathematics, physics, and

from the need to replace individuals who transbookkeeping fer to other occupations or stop working al

Department of Allied Health Education and AcRespiratory technicians and assistants can

creditation, American Medical Association, 535 N. together advance to the therapist level by taking the

Dearborn St., Chicago, III. 60610.

Future demand for these workers will also appropriate courses. Indeed, some students in respiratory therapist programs work part time reflect the health care needs of an aging popula

Many respiratory therapy workers receive as hospital technicians. tion. The rate of surgery has increased, with the

formal training in hospitals, vocational-tech

nical institutes, private trade schools, and other For respiratory therapists, advancement in most pronounced increase in operations occur

noncollegiate settings. Local hospitals can clinical practice goes from care of “general” to ring among persons 65 years of age and older,

provide information on training opportunities "critical” patients. Extra skills are needed to the segment of the population with the greatest

for this and other health occupations. Nonjudge the condition of patients with breathing frequency of heart and lung problems. The in

hospital vocational programs are listed, by city problems as well as other organ system (heart, creased rate of surgery among the elderly re

and State, in the 1982 edition of Postsecondary kidney, etc.) failures. Ability to combine sults partly from safer and more effective sur

Schools with Occupational Programs, a pubbreathing care with many other nursing and gical procedures. If this trend continues,

lication of the U.S. Department of Education's medical functions is also required. demand for respiratory therapy workers will be

National Center for Education Statistics. This Therapists may also advance into supervi heightened. Morever, lung disease is on the publication may be available in counseling cension and management positions and with addi

increase and trained therapists will be needed to ters or large public libraries. tional academic training or experience may treat these patients. It is also expected that opdirect the respiratory therapy department. Cre

portunities will increase in home care and in dentials as a Registered Respiratory Therapist rehabilitation. (RRT) often are required for administrative

Employment prospects should continue to be positions

excellent for experienced therapists and for reThe field of education also offers oppor

. tunities for career development. Jobs for hospi However, the increasing availability of formally tal “in-service" educators are widely available, trained therapy workers may make entry more

(D.O.T. 076.101 and 107) especially for therapists with skills or training

difficult for people with neither training nor in teaching. Many therapists have found careers experience.

Nature of the Work as instructors in respiratory-therapy education

Almost 1 American in 10 is unable to speak or programs, and with additional academic prepaEarnings

hear clearly. When not treated, speech, lanration they are eligible to advance up the line to professor or program director.

The starting salary of respiratory therapists em guage, and hearing impairments are serious

ployed in hospitals averaged about $15,400 a handicaps that can cause problems throughout Job Outlook

year in 1982, according to a survey conducted life. Children who have difficulty speaking, Employment of respiratory therapists is ex by the University of Texas Medical Branch. understanding language, or hearing cannot parpected to grow faster than the average for all Experienced respiratory therapists in hospitals ticipate fully with other children in play or in

Page 26

Clinical Laboratory
Technologists and

he Handbook, request a copy of “200 Ways to a of laboratory personnel: Technologists and health agencies, pharmaceutical firms, and reHealth Career” from: technicians.

search institutions. Laboratory facilities generNational Health Council, 1740 Broadway, New York,

Medical laboratory technologists have a

ally are concentrated in metropolitan areas. bachelor's degree in science, as a rule. They N.Y. 10019.

Some laboratory workers work part time. perform complicated chemical, biological, Another useful publication is Health Careers hematological, microscopic, and bac

In 1982, Veterans Administration hospitals Guidebook, fourth edition, published in 1979 teriological tests. These may include chemical

and laboratories employed about 3,700 medical by the U.S. Department of Health, Education, tests to determine, for example, the blood cho

technologists and about 2,200 medical laboraand Welfare (now the Department of Health and lesterol level, or microscopic examination of tory technicians. Others worked for the U.S. Human Services.) It is available for $7.50 the blood to detect the presence of diseases such Public Health Service. from:

as leukemia. Technologists microscopically ex

amine other body fluids; make cultures of body Training, Other Qualifications, and Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government

fluid or tissue samples to determine the presPrinting Office Washington, D.C. 20402.

Advancement ence of bacteria, parasites, or other micro-or

The usual requirement for a beginning job as a ganisms; and analyze the samples for chemical content or reaction. They also may type and

medical technologist is a bachelors degree with cross-match blood samples for transfusions. a major in medical technology or in one of the

Technologists in small laboratories perform life sciences: Biology or biochemistry, for exmany types of tests, while those in large labora ample. It is also possible to qualify through ontories usually specialize. Among the areas in the-job experience, specialized training, or a

which they can specialize are biochemistry (the combination of these. Technicians chemical analysis of body fluids), blood bank

Bachelor's degree programs in medical techtechnology (the collection and preparation of (D.O.T. 078.121-010, .161-010, .221-010, .261-010

nology include substantial course work in blood products for transfusion), cytotechnoloand -014, .281-010, .361-014 and -030, and .381-014)

chemistry, biological sciences, microbiology, gy (the study of human body cells), hematology (the study of blood cells), histology (the study

and mathematics, plus 1 year of practical expeNature of the Work of human and animal tissue), and microbiology

rience in laboratory work. These programs are Laboratory tests play an important part in the

(the study of bacteria and other micro-organ offered by colleges and universities as well as isms).

by hospitals. The hospital programs generally detection, diagnosis, and treatment of disease. They are essential in detecting the presence of

Most medical technologists conduct tests re are affiliated with colleges or universities and

lated to the examination and treatment of paillnesses in which there are changes in the body

lead to a bachelor's degree, although a few tients. Others do research, develop laboratory fluids and tissues. Examples of such changes

hospital programs require a bachelor's degree techniques, teach, or perform administrative include chemical changes in the blood, urine,

for entry. duties. or lymph; increases or decreases in the count of Medical laboratory technicians generally

Many universities offer advanced degrees in various types of white or red blood cells; microhave an associate degree or a diploma or certifi

medical technology and related clinical laborascopic changes in the structure of the cells of a cate from a private postsecondary trade or tech

tory sciences for technologists who plan to spediseased tissue or organ; and the presence of nical school. They are midlevel laboratory

cialize in a certain area of laboratory work or in parasites, viruses, or bacteria in the blood or workers who function under the supervision of teaching, administration, or research. tissue.

a medical technologist or laboratory supervisor. Medical laboratory technicians acquire their Although physicians use the results of labo They perform a wide range of complex tests and training in a variety of ways including comratory evaluation and diagnosis, they do not laboratory procedures which do not require the munity and junior colleges, hospitals, and voperform the tests themselves. Instead, the tests technical knowledge of medical technologists. cational and technical schools. Many programs are done by clinical laboratory personnel. Like technologists, they may work in several

last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. These specialists provide laboratory services areas or specialize in one field.

Some medical laboratory technicians are trainranging from routine tests to highly complex Working Conditions

ed in the Armed Forces. analyses, and their skill level and educational Clinical laboratory personnel generally work a Persons interested in a clinical laboratory preparation vary accordingly. This section of 5-day, 40-hour week. Those working in a hos

career should be careful about selecting a trainthe Handbook discusses the work of two levels pital can expect some evening and weekend

ing program. Prospective employers-hospiduty. Laboratory workers may spend a great

tals and independent laboratories—may have deal of time on their feet. Laboratories generally are well lighted and

preferences as to program accreditation. (ACclean. Although unpleasant odors and infec

creditation indicates that a training program tious materials often are present, few hazards meets established standards.) Prospective exist if proper methods of sterilization and training programs should be able to provide handling of specimens, materials, and equip information about the kinds of jobs obtained by ment are used.

graduates, educational costs, the length of time Employment

the training program has been in operation, Clinical laboratory technologists and techni

instructional facilities, and faculty qualificacians held about 209,000 jobs in 1982. Medical tions. laboratory technologists accounted for nearly Nationally recognized accrediting agencies half of these jobs, as the following tabulation in the allied health field include the Committee shows.

on Allied Health Education and Accreditation Medical laboratory technologists

103,000

(CAHEA) and the Accrediting Bureau of Medical laboratory technicians

57,000 Health Education Schools (ABHES). CAHEA Blood bank specialists

17,000 accredits programs that provide training for 26 Biochemistry technologits

11,000

allied health occupations including medical Microbiology technologists

9,000

technologists, cytotechnologists, histologic Histologic technologists

7,000 Cytotechnologists

5,000

technicians, specialists in blood bank tech

nology, and medical laboratory technicians. Clinical laboratory personnel examine body

Most medical laboratory personnel work in ABHES accredits training programs for meditissues and fluids to help determine the cause of hospitals. Others work in independent labora cal laboratory technicians and medical assis

tories, physicians' offices, clinics, public