How did the differences between Northern and southern economies lead to the development of two distinct cultural regions?

1. Whiten A., Hinde R. A., Laland K. N., Stringer C. B. 2011. Culture evolves. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 366, 938–948 10.1098/rstb.2010.0372 (doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0372) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

2. Bonner J. T. 1980. The evolution of culture in animals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press [Google Scholar]

3. Richerson P., Boyd R. 2005. Not by genes alone: how culture transformed human evolution. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press [Google Scholar]

4. Foley R. A. 2001. Evolutionary perspectives on the origins of human social institutions. Proc. Br. Acad. 110, 171–195 [Google Scholar]

5. Collard M., Buchanan B., Morin J., Costopoulos A. 2011. What drives the evolution of hunter–gatherer subsistence technology? A reanalysis of the risk hypothesis with data from the Pacific Northwest. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 366, 1129–1138 10.1098/rstb.2010.0366 (doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0366) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

6. Currie T. E., Mace R. 2011. Mode and tempo in the evolution of socio-political organization: reconciling ‘Darwinian’ and ‘Spencerian’ evolutionary approaches in anthropology. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 366, 1108–1117 10.1098/rstb.2010.0318 (doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0318) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

7. Shennan S. 2011. Descent with modification and the archaeological record. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 366, 1070–1079 10.1098/rstb.2010.0380 (doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0380) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

8. Foley R. A., Lahr M. M. 2001. The anthropological, demographic and ecological context of human evolutionary genetics. In Genes, fossils and behavior: an integrated approach to modern human origins (eds Donnelly P., Foley R. A.), pp. 223–245 Omaha, NE: IOS Press [Google Scholar]

9. Gagneux P., et al. 1999. Mitochondrial sequences show diverse evolutionary histories of African hominoids. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 96, 5077–5082 10.1073/pnas.96.9.5077 (doi:10.1073/pnas.96.9.5077) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

10. Lewis M. P. 2009. Ethnologue: languages of the world, 16th edn. Dallas, TX: SIL International [Google Scholar]

11. Price D. 1990. Atlas of world cultures. London, UK: Sage [Google Scholar]

12. Nettle D. 1998. Explaining global patterns of language diversity. J. Anthropol. Archaeol. 17, 354–374 10.1006/jaar.1998.0328 (doi:10.1006/jaar.1998.0328) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

13. Mace R., Pagel M. 1995. A latitudinal gradient in the density of human languages in North America. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 261, 117–121 10.1098/rspb.1995.0125 (doi:10.1098/rspb.1995.0125) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

14. Collard I. F., Foley R. A. 2002. Latitudinal patterns and environmental determinants of recent human cultural diversity: do humans follow biogeographical rules? Evol. Ecol. Res. 4, 371–383 [Google Scholar]

15. Moore J. L., Manne L., Brooks T., Burgess N. D., Davies R., Rahbek C., Williams P., Balmford A. 2002. The distribution of cultural and biological diversity in Africa. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 269, 1645–1653 10.1098/rspb.2002.2075 (doi:10.1098/rspb.2002.2075) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

16. Lewontin R. C. 1972. The apportionment of human diversity. Evol. Biol. 6, 391–398 [Google Scholar]

17. Edwards A. 2003. Human genetic diversity: Lewontin's fallacy. Bioessays 25, 798–801 10.1002/bies.10315 (doi:10.1002/bies.10315) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

18. Rosenberg N. A., Pritchard J. K., Weber J. L., Cann H. M., Kidd K. K., Zhivotovsky L. A., Feldman M. W. 2002. Genetic structure of human populations. Science 298, 2381–2385 10.1126/science.1078311 (doi:10.1126/science.1078311) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

19. McElreath R., Boyd R., Richerson P. J. 2003. Shared norms and the evolution of ethnic markers. Curr. Anthropol. 44, 122–129 10.1086/345689 (doi:10.1086/345689) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

20. Gonder M. K., Mortensen H. M., Reed F. A., de Sousa A., Tishkoff S. A. 2007. Whole-mtDNA genome sequence analysis of ancient African lineages. Mol. Biol. Evol. 24, 757–768 10.1093/molbev/msl209:10.1093/molbev/msl209 (doi:10.1093/molbev/msl209:10.1093/molbev/msl209) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

21. Underhill P., Kivisild T. 2007. Use of Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA population structure in tracing human migrations. Annu. Rev. Genet. 41, 539–564 10.1146/annurev.genet.41.110306.130407 (doi:10.1146/annurev.genet.41.110306.130407) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

22. Atkinson Q. D., Gray R. D., Drummond A. J. 2008. mtDNA variation predicts population size in humans and reveals a major southern Asian chapter in human prehistory. Mol. Biol. Evol. 25, 447–468 10.1093/molbev/msm277:10.1093/molbev/msm277 (doi:10.1093/molbev/msm277:10.1093/molbev/msm277) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

23. Lahr M. M., Foley R. A. 2001. Genes, fossils and behavior: when and where do they fit? In Genes, fossils and behavior: an integrated approach to modern human origins (eds Donnelly P., Foley R. A.), pp. 13–48 Omaha, NE: IOS Press [Google Scholar]

24. McDougall I., Brown F., Fleagle J. 2005. Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia. Nature 433, 733–736 10.1038/nature03258 (doi:10.1038/nature03258) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

25. White T. D., Asfaw B., DeGusta D., Gilbert H., Richards G. D., Suwa G., Howell F. C. 2003. Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature 423, 742–747 10.1038/nature01669 (doi:10.1038/nature01669) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

26. Klein R. G. 2009. The human career. Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press [Google Scholar]

27. Foley R. A., Lahr M. M. 1997. Mode 3 technologies and the evolution of modern humans. Cambr. Archaeol. J. 7, 3–36 10.1017/S0959774300001451 (doi:10.1017/S0959774300001451) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

28. Barham L. S. 1998. Possible early pigment use in South-Central Africa. Curr. Anthropol. 39, 703–710 10.1086/204793 (doi:10.1086/204793) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

29. Whiten A., Goodall J., McGrew W. C., Nishida T., Reynolds V., Sugiyama Y., Tutin C. E. G., Wrangham R. W., Boesch C. 1999. Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature 399, 682–685 10.1038/21415 (doi:10.1038/21415) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

30. d'Errico F., Henshilwood C., Vanhaeren M., Karen van Niekerk K. 2005. Nassarius kraussianus shell beads from Blombos Cave: evidence for symbolic behaviour in the Middle Stone Age. J. Hum. Evol. 48, 3–24 10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.09.002 (doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.09.002) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

31. Bouzouggar A., et al. 2007. 82,000-Year-old shell beads from North Africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 9964–9969 10.1073/pnas.0703877104 (doi:10.1073/pnas.0703877104) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

32. d'Errico F., Vanhaeren M., Barton N., Bouzouggar A., Mienis H., Richter D., Hublin J.-J., McPherron S. P., Lozouet P. 2009. Additional evidence on the use of personal ornaments in the Middle Paleolithic of North Africa. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106, 16 051–16 056 10.1073/pnas.0903532106 (doi:10.1073/pnas.0903532106) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

33. Henshilwood C. S., d'Errico F., Watts I. 2009. Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa. J. Hum. Evol. 57, 27–47 10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.01.005 (doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.01.005) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

34. Henshilwood C. S., et al. 2002. Emergence of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age engravings from South Africa. Science 295, 1278–1280 10.1126/science.1067575 (doi:10.1126/science.1067575) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

35. Jacobs Z., Roberts R. G., Galbraith R. F., Deacon H. J., Grün R., Mackay A., Mitchell P., Vogelsang R., Wadley L. 2008. Ages for the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa: implications for human behavior and dispersal. Science 322, 733–735 10.1126/science.1162219 (doi:10.1126/science.1162219) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

36. O'Connell J. F., Allen J. 2004. Dating the colonization of Sahul (Pleistocene Australia–New Guinea): a review of recent research. J. Archaeol. Sci. 31, 835–853 10.1016/j.jas.2003.11.005 (doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.11.005) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

37. Vanhaeren M., d'Errico F. 2006. Aurignacian ethno-linguistic geography of Europe revealed by personal ornaments. J. Archaeol. Sci. 33, 1105–1128 10.1016/j.jas.2005.11.017 (doi:10.1016/j.jas.2005.11.017) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

38. Texier P. J., et al. 2010. A Howiesons Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dated to 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 6180–6185 10.1073/pnas.0913047107 (doi:10.1073/pnas.0913047107) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

39. Kuzmin Y. V., Burr G. S., Jull A. J. T., Sulerzhitsky L. D. 2004. AMS C-14 age of the Upper Palaeolithic skeletons from Sungir site, Central Russian Plain. Nucl. Instrum. Meth. B 223-224, 731–734 10.1016/j.nimb.2004.04.135 (doi:10.1016/j.nimb.2004.04.135) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

40. Bouquet-Appel J.-P., Demars P. Y. 2000. Population kinetics in the Upper Palaeolithic in Western Europe. J. Archaeol. Sci. 27, 551–570 10.1006/jasc.1999.0471 (doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0471) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

41. Powell A., Shennan S., Thomas M. G. 2009. Late Pleistocene demography and the appearance of modern human behavior. Science 324, 1298–1301 10.1126/science.1170165 (doi:10.1126/science.1170165) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

42. Veth P. M. 1993. Islands in the interior. Ann Arbor, MI: International Monographs in Prehistory [Google Scholar]

43. Bellwood P., Renfrew A. C. 2003. Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis. Cambridge, UK: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research [Google Scholar]

44. Birdsell J. B. 1953. Some environmental and cultural factors influencing the structure of Australian aboriginal populations. Am. Nat. 87, 171–207 10.1086/281776 (doi:10.1086/281776) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

45. Currie T. E., Mace R. 2009. Political complexity predicts the spread of ethnolinguistic groups. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106, 7339–7344 10.1073/pnas.0804698106:10.1073/pnas.0804698106 (doi:10.1073/pnas.0804698106:10.1073/pnas.0804698106) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

46. Foley R. A. 2004. The evolutionary ecology of linguistic diversity in human populations. In Traces of ancestry: studies in honour of Colin Renfrew (ed. Jones M.). Cambridge, UK: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research [Google Scholar]

47. Hodder I. 1977. The distribution of material culture items in the Baringo Distrct, Western Kenya. Man 12, 239–269 10.2307/2800797 (doi:10.2307/2800797) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

48. Sahlins M. 1961. The segmentary lineage: an organization of predatory expansion. Am. Anthropol. 63, 322–345 10.1525/aa.1961.63.2.02a00050 (doi:10.1525/aa.1961.63.2.02a00050) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

49. Collard M., Shennan S. J., Tehrani J. J. 2006. Branching, blending, and the evolution of cultural similarities and differences among human populations. Evol. Hum. Behav. 27, 169–184 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.07.003 (doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.07.003) [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

50. Cavalli-Sforza L. L., Piazza A., Menozzi P., Mountain J. 1988. Reconstruction of human evolution: bringing together genetic, archaeological and linguistic data. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 85, 6002–6006 10.1073/pnas.85.16.6002 (doi:10.1073/pnas.85.16.6002) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

51. Whiten A. 2011. The scope of culture in chimpanzees, humans and ancestral apes. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 366, 997–1007 10.1098/rstb.2010.0334 (doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0334) [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

52. Mitani J., Watts D., Amsler S. 2010. Lethal intergroup aggression leads to territorial expansion in wild chimpanzees. Curr. Biol. 20, R507–R508 10.1016/j.cub.2010.04.021 (doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.04.021) [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

Page 2

Comparative genetic diversity of apes and humans. The horizontal bars indicate the range and average pairwise difference between individuals in mtDNA sequence; the cartoon on the right is an unrooted tree of the ape/human clade, based on mtDNA, in which the branch lengths are equivalent to sequence divergence. Modified from Gagneux et al. [9].

Click on the image to see a larger version.