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workmen into the best way, and brought them ported into this state without burdening cominformation of the newest processes, purchased merce.',. Accordingly, low duties were laid on from foreign manufacturers, or secretly obtained wines, liquors, molasses, sugar, cocoa and tea, at great expense. Colbert was far from attach- with 1 per cent. on all other imports. In 1782 ing to the customs the idea of exclusive and the duties were doubled and the revenue was ap. blind protection that has ever been attributed to propriated to the defence of commerce on the them since his ministry. He knew very well Delaware river and bay. This was done at the that these tariffs would engender reprisals, and request of the merchants who wished to have that, while encouraging manufactures, they their interests protected and ‘signitied their willwould seriously hinder commerce. Moreover, ingness to submit to a further impost on the imall his efforts tended to weaken their evil effects. portation of goods for that purpose.' When His instructions to consuls and ambassadors tes. peace came, however, the merchants at once tify strongly to his prepossessions in this regard. represented it as detrimental to the interests of The more one studies the administrative the state to continue the duties, and they were acts of this great minister, the more one is con- repealed. In 1784 low duties were again imvinced of his lofty sense of justice, and of the posed, and later in the same year increased. liberal tendencies of his system, which has hith- Early in 1785 more careful provisions were made erto been generally extolled as hostile to for their collection. September 20, came the imthe principle of commercial liberty. In vain portant act to encourage and protect the manuthe Italians have hailed it by the name of ‘Col. factures of this state by laying additional duties bertism,' to designate the exclusive system in- on certain manufactures which interfere with vented by themselves and honored by the Span- them.'. .. More than forty of the articles which ish: Colbert never approved the sacrifice of the Pennsylvania had begun to make were taxed at greater part of his fellow citizens to a few privi- high specitic rates. Coaches and carriages, paid leged ones, nor the creation of endless monopolies £10 to £20; clocks, 30s. ; scythes, 15s. per dozen; for the profit of certain branches of industry. beer, ale and porter, 6d. per gallon; soap or canWe may reproach him with having been exces- dles, 1d. per pound; shoes and boots, is. to 6s. sively inclined to make regulations, but not with per pair; cordage and ropes, 8s. 4d. per hundred having enfeoffed France to a few spinners of weight; and so on. The ten per cent. schedule wool and cotton. He had himself summed up included manufactures of iron and steel, hats, in a few words his system in the memorial he clothing, books and papers, whips, canes, musical presented to the king: "To reduce export duties instruments and jewelry. ... The Pennsylvania on provisions and manufactures of the kingdom; act is of importance because it shows the nature to diminish import duties on everything which is of commodities which the country was then proof use in manufactures; and to repel the products ducing, as well as because it formed the basis of of foreign manufactures, by raising the duties.' the tariff of 1789."—W. Hill, First Stages of the Such was the spirit of his first tariff, published Tarif Policy of the United States, pp. 53–54. – in September, 1664. He had especially aimed at The preamble of the Pennsylvania act of 1785 facilitating the supply of raw materials in France, set forth its reasons as follows: Whereas, and promoting the interests of her home trade by divers useful and beneficial arts and manufacthe abolition of provincial barriers, and by the tures have been gradually introduced into Pennestablishment of lincs of customs-houses at sylvania, and the same have at length risen to a the extreme frontiers. . . . The only reproach very considerable extent and perfection, insothat can be justly made against him is the abuse much that in the late war between the United of the protective instrument he had just created, States of America and Great Britain, when the by increasing in the tariff of 1667 the exclusive importation of European goods was much intermeasures directed against foreign manufactures rupted, and often very difficult and uncertain, in that of 1664. It was no longer then a ques- the artizans and mechanics of this state were tion of manufactures, but of war, namely, with able to supply in the hours of need, not only Holland; and this war broke out in 1672. . large quantities of weapons and other impleFrom the same epoch date the first wars of com- ments, but also ammunition and clothing, withmercial reprisals between France and England, out which the war could not have been carried hostilities which were to cost both nations so on, whereby their oppressed country was greatly much blood and so many tears. Manufactures assisted and relieved. And whereas, although were then seen to prosper and agriculture to lan. the fabrics and manufactures of Europe, and guish in France under the influence of this sys- other foreign parts, imported into this country tem.”-J. A. Blanqui, llist. of Pol. Economy in in times of peace, may be afforded at cheaper Europe, ch. 26. rates than they can be made here, yet good ALSO IN: II. Martin, Hist. of France : The Age policy and a regard to the wellbeing of divers of Louis XIV., v. 1, ch. 2.-J. B. Perkins, France useful and industrious citizens, who are emunder the Regency, ch. 4. -See, also, FRANCE: ployed in the making of like goods, in this state, A. D. 1661-1683. demand of us that moderate duties be laid on (Pennsylvania): A. D. 1785.- Beginning of certain fabrics and manufactures imported, which “Protection" in Pennsylvania.—“Before the do most interfere with, and which (if no relief Revolution Pennsylvania had always been show be given) will undermine and destroy the useful to impose burdens on trade. While Massachu- manufactures of the like kind in this country, setts, New York and South Carolina were raising for this purpose. Be it enacted" &c.—Pennsylconsiderable sums from imposts, Pennsylvania vania Laus, 1785.- The duties enacted, which commerce was free from restrictions. In 1780, were additional to the then existing impost of however, the need of revenue overcame the pre- 25 per cent., were generally specific, but ad dilection of the Quakers for free trade and they valorem on some commodities as on British steel, decided that considerable sums can be raised by 10 per cent. ; earthen ware, the same; glass and a small impost on goods and merchandise im- glass-ware, 2 per cent. ; linens the same. Looked Page 3
out. It was voted to discourage the importation should not suffer. It must, therefore, not be of foreign spirits and the distillation of spirits done in the manner proposed by Jackson. le from foreign products, by way of protection to insisted upon contining the reduction to duties Western whiskey. When the 20th Congress on articles not coming into competition with met, the tariff was the absorbing question. American products. Instead of abolishing Popular interest had become engaged in it, and protective duties he would rather reduce the parties were to form on it, but it perplexed the revenue by making some of them prohibitory. politicians greatly. The act which resulted When objection was made that this would from the scramble of selfish special interests was be a defiance of the South, of the President, and an economic monstrosity. May 19, 1828, of the whole administration party, he replied, as the bill became a law. The duty on woolcosting Adams reports, that “to preserve, maintain and less than 10 cents per pound was 15 per cent., on strengthen the American System, he would defy other wool 20 per cent. and 30 per cent. That the South, the President and the devil.' He on woollens was 40 per cent. for a year, then 45 introduced a resolution in the Senate, that the per cent., there being four minima, 50 cents, existing duties upon articles imported from for$1.00; $2.50, $4.00. All which cost over $4.00 eign countries, and not coming into competition were to be taxed 45 per cent. for a year, then with similar articles made or produced within the 50 per cent. . The process of rolling iron had United States, ought to be forth with abolished, not yet been introduced into this country. It except the duties upon wines and silks, and that was argued that rolled iron was not as good as those ought to be reduced; and that the Comforged, and this was made the ground for raising mittee on Finance be instructed to report a bill the tax on rolled iron from $30.00 to $37.00 per accordingly.'” After long debate Clay's “ tariff ton, while the tax on forged iron was raised resolution was adopted, and in June, 1832, a bill from $18.00 to $22.40. Rolled iron was cheaper substantially in accord with it passed both and was available for a great number of uses. houses, known as the tariff act of 1832. It The tax, in this case, 'countervailed’an improve- reduced or abolished the duties on many of the ment in the arts, and robbed the American unprotected articles, but left the protective syspeople of their share in the advantage of a new tem without material change. As a reduction industrial achievement. The tax on steel was of the revenue it effected very little. . . . The raised from $20.00 to $30.00 per ton; that on reduction proposed by Clay, according to his hemp from $35.00 to $45.00 per ton; that on own estimate, was not over seven millions; the molasses from 5 cents to 10 cents per gallon; reduction really effected by the new tariff law that on flax from nothing to $35.00 per ton. scarcely exceeded three millions. Clay had The tax on sugar, salt, and glass remained sa ved the American System at the expense of the unchanged, and that on tea also, save by a dif- very object contemplated by the measure. It ferential tonnage duty. Coffee was classified and was extremely short-sighted statesmanship. the tax reduced. The tax on wine, by a separ- The surplus was as threatening as ever, and the ate act, was reduced one half or more. This dissatisfaction in the South grew from day to was the ‘tariff of abominations,' so called on day.”—C. Schurz, Life of llenry Clay, ch. 13 account of the number of especially monstrous (v. 1). provisions which it contained.”—W. G. Sumner, Also in H. Clay, Life, Cor, and Speeches (ColAndrew Jackson as a Public Man, ch. 9.-" The ton ed.), v. 5, pp. 416-428. tariff of 1828 ... was the work of politicians and manufacturers; and was commenced for the (United States): A. D. 1833.– The Southern benefit of the woollen interest, and upon a bill opposition to protection.- Nullification in S. Carolina. - The chiefly designed to favor that branch of manu compromise tariff. See facturing industry. But, like all other bills of UNITED STATES OF AM.: A. D. 1828–1833. the kind, it required help from other interests (Germany): A. D. 1833. – The Zollverein.to get itself along.”—T. H. Benton, Thirty “The German Customs Union (Deutsche ZollYears' View, 1. 1, ch. 34. - J. Schouler, Hist. of verein) is an association of states, having for its the U'. S., ch. 12, sect. 2 (r. 3). declared object to secure freedom of trade and (United States): A. D. 1832.—Clay's delu. commerce between the contracting states, and a sive act to diminish revenue. - President Jack common interest in the customs revenue. The son, in his message of December, 1831, “invited terms of the union are expressed in the treaty attention to the fact that the public debt would between Prussia and the other states, dated 220 be extinguished before the expiration of his March, 1833, which may be regarded as the basis term, and that, therefore, 'a moditication of the of the association. The states now (1844) formtariff, which shall produce a reduction of the ing the union are Prussia, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, revenue to the wants of the government,' was Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, Baden, very advisable. He added that, in justice to Nassau, the Thuringian states, Frankfort, the interests of the merchant as well as the man Brunswick, Lippe-Schaumburg. and Luxemufacturer, the reduction should be prospective, burg. The population of these, with the excepand that the duties should be adjusted with a tion of the three last mentioned states, was, in view “to the counteraction of foreign policy, so 1839, 26,858,886. Including these three states, far as it may be injurious to our national inter- which have since joined the union, the present ests.' This meant a revenue tariff with inci. population cannot be less than twenty-seven dental retaliation. He had thus arrived at a millions and a half. The German powers which sensible plan to avoid the accumulation of a have not joined the union are Austria, with surplus. Clay took the matter in hand in the twelve millions of German subjects, and lanSenate, or rather in Congress. . . . He recog. over, Oldenburg, Holstein, the two Mecklennized the necessity of reducing the revenue, but burgs, and the Hanse Towns, whose united he would reduce the revenue without reduc- population is about three millions more. The ing protective duties. The · American System' inhabitants of Germany are, therefore, divided Page 4
Corn-Law League. . . In October, 1838, a band of seven men met moved that the House should resolve itself into at a hotel in Manchester, and formed a new a Committee to consider the Corn Laws. His Anti-Corn Law Association. They were speedily speech, which lasted nearly three hours, was joined by others, including Cobden, who from necessarily dull, and his proposal was equally this moment began to take a prominent part in offensive to the country gentlemen and to the all counsel and action. That critical moment Anti-Corn Law League. It amounted merely to had arrived, which comes in the history of every an improvement of the sliding-scale which had successful movement, when a section arises been devised by the Duke of Wellington's Cab. within the party, which refuses from that day inet [See above: A. D. 1815-1828), and was forward either to postpone or to compromise. based on the axiom that the British farmer, The feeling among the older men was to stop taking one year with another, could not make a short in their demands at some modification of profit by growing corn if foreign corn were the existing duty. . . . The more energetic admitted at a price of less than 70s. a quarter. members protested against these faltering voices. By a calculation of prices extending over a long The meeting was adjourned, to the great term of years, Peel had satisfied himself that a chagrin of the President, and when the members price of 56s. a quarter would remunerate the assembled a week later, Cobden drew from his British farmer. He proposed to modify the pocket a draft petition which he and his allies sliding-scale accordingly. Peel retained had prepared in the interval, and which after a the minimum duty of is. when corn was selling discussion of many hours was adopted by an at 73s. the quarter; he fixed a maximum duty of almost unanimous vote. The preamble laid all 20s, when corn was selling at from 50s. to 51s. the stress on the alleged facts of foreign com- the quarter, and he so altered the graduation in petition, in words which never fail to be heard the increase of duty as to diminish the inducein times of bad trade. It recited how the exist- ment to hold grain back when it became dear. ing laws prevented the British manufacturer So general was the dissatisfaction with from exchanging the produce of his labour for the Peel's Corn Law that Russell ventured once corn of other countries, and so enabled his more to place before the House his alternative of foreign rivals to purchase their food at one half a fixed 8s. duty. He was defeated by a majority of the price at which it was sold in the English of upwards of 120 votes. Two days later Mr. market; and finally the prayer of the petition Villiers made his annual motion for the total called for the repeal of all laws relating to the repeal of the Corn Laws, and was beaten by importation of foreign corn and other foreign more than four votes to one. The murmurs of articles of subsistence, and implored the House Peel's own supporters were easily overborne, to carry out to the fullest extent, both as affects and the Bill was carried through the House of manufactures and agriculture, the true and Commons after a month spent in debates. As peaceful principles of free-trade. In the follow- soon as it had passed, and the estimates for the ing month, January, 1839, the Anti-Corn-Law army and navy had been voted, Peel produced Association showed that it was in earnest in the what was really his Budget, nominally Mr. intention to agitate, by proceeding to raise a Goulburn's. In every one of the last five subscription of an effective sum of money. years there had been a deficit. . . . Peel thereCobden threw out one of those expressions which fore resolved to impose an income tax." He catch men's minds in moments when they are also raised the duty on Irish spirits and on already ripe for action. “Let us,' he said, exports of coal, besides making some changes in 'invest part of our property, in order to save the the stamp duties. “ With these and with the rest from contiscation.' Within a month £6,000 income tax he calculated that he would have a had been raised, the first instalment of many surplus of £1,900,000. Peel was thus able to scores of thousands still to come. A great propose a reduction of the tariff upon uniform banquet was given to some of the parliamentary and comprehensive principles. He proposed to supporters of Free Trade; more money was sub- limit import duties to a maximum of 5 per cent. scribed, convictions became clearer and purpose upon the value of raw materials, of 12 per cent. waxed more resolute. On the day after the upon the value of goods partly manufactured, banquet, at a meeting of delegates from other and of 20 per cent. upon the value of goods towns, Cobden brought forward a scheme for wholly manufactured. Out of the 1,200 articles united action among the various associations then comprised in the tariff, 750 were more or throughout the country. This was the germ of less affected by the application of these rules, what ultimately became the League.”—J. Morley, yet so trivial was the revenue raised from most Life of Richard Cobden, ch. 6 (c. 1). of them that the total loss was computed at only ALSO IN W. Robertson, Life and Times of John £270,000 a year. Peel reduced the duty on Bright, ch. 8 ană 11-14. coffee; he reduced the duty on foreign and (England): A. D. 1842.-Peel's modifica- almost entirely abolished the duty on Canadian tion of the Corn Laws. — His sliding-scale. timber. Cattle and pigs, meat of all descripHis Tariff reductions.- The first great step tions, cheese and butter, which had hitherto towards Free-Trade. - The Whig administra been subject to a prohibitory duty, he proposed tion under Lord Melbourne gave way in August, to admit at a comparatively low rate. He also in 1841, to one formed by Sir Robert Peel. diminished the duty upon stage coaches. So the opening of the session in February, 1812, extensive a change in our system of national "The Queen's Speech recommended Parliament finance had never before been effected at one to consider the state of the laws affecting the stroke. . . . Immense was the excitement caused importation of corn and other commodities. It by the statement of the Budget. . . . Every announced the beginning of a revolution which part of Peel's scheme was debated with the few persons in England thought possible, utmost energy. . . . He procured the ratification although it was to be completed in little more of all his measures subject to some slight amendthan ten years. On the 9th of February Peel ments, and at the cost of a whole session spent 4-46 3073 Page 5
tion, which stimulates a like ruinous and irre- 158-169, with foot-note.—Under the Morrill Tariff, sponsible competition at home' (Congress. Globe, which went into effect April 1, 1861, the imposts 1859-60, p. 1867). Mr. Sherman said: ... “The which had averaged about 19 per cent. on dutimanufacturers have asked over and over again able articles were raised to 36 per cent. — J. G. to be let alone. The tariff of 1857 is the manu- Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress, v. 1, p. 400. facturers' bill; but the present bill is more bene- (Australia): A. D. 1862-1892.- Contrasted ficial to the agricultural interest than the tariff policy of Victoria and New South Wales.of 1857.' (Ibid., p. 2053. C. F. Hunter's speech, Both New South Wales and Victoria “are young Ibid., p. 3010.) In later years Mr. Morrill him- 'countries, and are inhabited by men of the same self said that the tariff of 1861 was not asked race, speech, and training: capital and labour for, and but coldly welcomed, by manufacturers, oscillate freely between them: both use substanwho always and justly fear instability.' (Congr. tially the same methods and forms of governGlobe, 1869–70, p. 3295.) . . . Hardly had the ment: while against the larger territory of New Morrill tariff been passed when Fort Sumter South Wales may be set the superior climate and was fired on. The Civil War began. The need casier development of its southern neighbour. of additional revenue for carrying on the great Whatever may be the balance of the natural adstruggle was immediately felt; and as early as vantages, whether of climate or population, is the extra session of the summer of 1861, addi- on the side of Victoria, whose compact, fertile, tional customs duties were imposed. In the next and well watered territory gained for it, on its regular session, in December, 1861, a still further first discovery, the well-deserved title of Ausincrease of duties was made. From that time tralia Felix. The striking and ultimate point of till 1865 no session, indeed hardly a month of any difference between the two countries is their session, passed in which some increase of duties fiscal policy. Since 1866 Victoria has lived under on imports was not made. .. The great acts a system of gradually increasing Protection, of 1862 and 1864 are typical of the whole course while the policy of New South Wales has been, of the war measures; and the latter is of par- in the main, one of Free Trade. According to ticular importance, because it became the founda- all Protectionist theory Victoria should be prostion of the existing tariff system. The three perous and New South Wales distressed; there revenue acts of June 30, 1864, practically form should be variety and growth in the one country, one measure, and that probably the greatest stagnation in the other. At least the progress of measure of taxation which the world has seen. Victoria ought to have been more rapid than The first of the acts provided for an enormous that of New South Wales, because she has added extension of the internal-tax system; the second to the natural advantages which she already enfor a corresponding increase of the duties on im- joyed, the artificial benefits which are claimed ports; the third authorized a loan of $100,000,000. for a Protective tariff. If, in fact, neither of Like the tariff act of 1862, that of 1864 was these conclusions is correct, and, while both introduced, explained, amended, and passed countries have been phenomenally prosperous, under the management of Mr. Morrill, who was New South Wales has prospered the most, one of chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means. two conclusions is inevitable — namely, either That gentleman again stated, as he had done in that certain special influences have caused the 1862, that the passage of the tariff act was ren- more rapid progress of New South Wales which dered necessary in order to put domestic pro- were not felt in Victoria, or that Protection has ducers in the same situation, so far as foreign retarded instead of assisted the development of competition was concerned, as if the internal Victoria's natural superiority. Writers of all taxes had not been raised. This was one great schools admit that activity in certain departobject of the new tariff. But it explains ments of national life is a fair indication of prosonly in part the measure which in fact was pro- perity and progress. It is, for instance, generposed and passed. The tariff of 1864 was a char- ally allowed that an increase in population, a acteristic result of that veritable furor of taxa- development of agricultural and manufacturing tion which had become fixed in the minds of the industry, a growth of foreign commerce, an inmen who were then managing the national crease in shipping, or an improvement in the finances. Mr. Morrill, and those who with him public revenue, are all signs of health and wellmade our revenue laws, seem to have had but being; and that a concurrence of such symptoms one principle: to tax every possible article indis- over a lengthened period indicates an increase in criminately, and to tax it at the highest rates that material wealth. Accepting these tests of progany one had the courage to suggest. They car- ress, our comparison proceeds thus: first, we ried this method out to its fullest extent in the examine the position of the two Colonies as retariff act of 1864, as well as in the tax act of that gards population, foreign commerce, shipping, year. At the same time these statesmen were agriculture, manufactures, and revenue, at the protectionists. Every domestic producer time when both of them adhered to Free Trade; who came before Congress got what he wanted from which we find that, according to all these in the way of duties. Protection ran riot; and indications of prosperity, Victoria was then very this, moreover, not merely for the time being. much the better off: In 1866 she outnumbered The whole tone of the public mind toward the New South Wales in population by 200,000 souls: question of import duties became distorted. her foreign commerce was larger by £8,300,000: The average rate on dutiable commodities, which she had a greater area of land under cultivation: had been 37.2 per cent. under the act of 1862, her manufactures were well established, while became 47.06 per cent. under that of 1864. those of New South Wales were few and insigIn regard to the duties as they stood before 1883, nificant: she was ahead in shipping, and her it is literally true, in regard to almost all pro- revenue was greater by one-third. Passing next tected articles, that the tariff act of 1864 remained to the years which follow 1866, we observe that in force for twenty years without reductions.”. New South Wales gradually bettered her posiF. W. Taussig, Tariff History of the U. S., pp. tion in every province of national activity, and Page 6
(United States) : A. D. 1883.-Revision of As our industries become more heterogeneous, the Tariff.- In 1882, Congress appointed a the tariff also grows more complex, and the diffiTariff Commission to take into consideration, culty of doing justice to all is increased. For and to thoroughly investigate, all the various example, the wool manufacturers to succeed best questions relating to the agricultural, commer- must have free wool and dye-stuffs; on the other cial, mercantile, manufacturing, mining, and in- hand, both these interests desired protection. dustrial interests of the United States, so far as The manufacturers of the higher forms of iron the same may be necessary to the establishment must have free materials to succeed best; on the of a judicious tariff, or a revision of the existing other hand, the ore producers, the pig-iron tariff upon a scale of justice to all interests. manufacturers, and every succeeding class desired Several things it was expected would be accom- a tariff on their products. It was not easy for plished by revising the tariff, and the measure these interests to agree, and some of them did received the assent of nearly all the members of not. The iron-ore producers desired a tariff of Congress. The free-traders expected to get 85 cents a ton on ore; the steel-rail makers were lower duties, the protectionists expected to con- opposed to the granting of more than 50; the cede them in some cases, and in others to get manufacturers of fence wire were opposed to an such modifications as would remove existing increase of duty on wire rods used for making ambiguities and strengthen themselves against wire, and favored a reduction; the manufacturforeign competition. The protective force of the ers of rods in this country were desirous of getexisting tariff had been weakened in several im- ting an increase; the manufacturers of floor oilportant manufactures by rulings of the treasury cloths desired a reduction or abolition of the department. ... The composition of the com- duty on the articles used by them; the soap mission was as satisfactory to the manufacturing manufacturers desired the putting of caustic class as displeasing to free-traders. . . . Early soda on the free list, which the American manuin their deliberations, the commission became facturers of it opposed; some of the woolen convinced that a substantial reduction of the manufacturers were desirous that protection tariff duties was demanded, not by a mere indis. should be granted to the manufacturers of dyecriminate popular clamor, but by the best con- stuffs, and some were not; the manufacturers of servative opinion of the country, including that tanned foreign goat and sheep skins desired the which had in former times been most strenuous removal of the tariff on such skins; those who for the preservation of the national industrial tanned them, and who were much less numerous, defences. Such a reduction of the existing tariff were equally tenacious in maintaining the tariff the commission regarded not only as a due recog. on the raw skins, and the same conflict arose benition of public sentiment, and a measure of jus- tween other interests. The method of determintice to consumers, but one conducive to the ing how much protection their several interests general industrial prosperity, and which, though needed, and of adjusting differences between it might be temporarily inconvenient, would be them, has always been of the crudest kind. ultimately beneficial to the special interests af- Although not all of the recommendations of the fected by such reduction. No rates of defensive commission were adopted, most of them were. duties, except for establishing new industries, Those which pertained to the simplification of which more than equalized the conditions of the law were adopted with only slight changes. labor and capital with those of foreign competi. The bill reported by the commission contained, tors, could be justitied. Excessive duties, or not including the free list, 631 articles and classithose above such standard of equalization, were fications. ... Less than 25 articles, mainly in positively injurious to the interest which they the cotton, woolen goods, and the iron and steel were supposed to benefit. They encouraged the schedules, were matters of contention. The rates investment of capital in manufacturing enter- on 409 of the 631 articles mentioned in the tariff prise by rash and unskilled speculators, to be recommended by the commission were adopted, followed by disaster to the adventurers and their and between 50 and 60 more articles have subemployees, and a plethora of commodities which stantially the same rates, though levied under deranged the operations of skilled and prudent different clauses. Of the 170 changes, 98 were enterprise. It would seem that the rates of fixed at lower rates than those proposed by the duties under the existing tariff — fixed, for the commission, 46 at higher, and 26 have been most part, during the war under the evident classed as doubtful.”- A. S. Bolles, Financial necessity at that time of stimulating to its utmost History of the United States, 1861–1885, bk. 2, ch.7. extent all domestic production might be (United States): A. D. 1884-1888. — Atadapted, through reduction, to the present con- tempts at Tariff Reform.-The Morrison Bills dition of peace requiring no such extraordinary and the Hewett Bill.-President Cleveland's stimulus. And in the mechanical and manufac- Message.— The Mills Bill and its defeat.turing industries, especially those which have been The slight concessions made in the protectionist long established, it would seem that the improve- tariff-revision of 1883 did not at all satisfy the ments in machinery and processes made within opinion in the country demanding greater industhe last twenty years, and the high scale of pro- trial freedom, and the question of tariff-reform ductiveness which had become a characteristic of became more important than before in American their establishments, would permit our manu- politics. The Democratic Party, identified by facturers to compete with their foreign rivals all its early traditions, with the opposition to a under a substantial reduction of existing duties.' policy of “protection,” won the election of 1884, Entertaining these views, the commission sought placing Mr. Cleveland in the Presidency and to present a scheme of tariff duties in which sub gaining control of the House of Representatives stantial reduction was the distinguishing feature. in the 49th Congress. But it had drifted from The attempt to modify the tariff brought its old anchorage on the tariff question, and was into bold relief the numerous conflicting interests, slow in pulling back. A large minority in the and the difficulty and delicacy of the undertaking. party had accepted and become supporters of Page 7
of the gains acquired, the supporters of tariff- August, when the House passed the Senate bill reform in the House, after prolonged attempts unchanged. The President declined to give his in conference committee to break the strength signature to the act, but allowed it to become of the combination against free sugar, free coal a law. Immediately after the passage of the and free iron ore, were reluctantly prevailed bill, the House adopted special enactments ad. upon to accept the Senate bill. It had passed mitting raw sugar, coal, iron ore, and barbed the Senate on the 3d of July. The struggle in wire, free of duty; but these bills were not acted conference committee lasted until the 13th of on in the Senate. TARLETON, Colonel, in the War of the stocks, or families — the Turk, the Mongol, or American Revolution. See UNITED STATES OF the Tungus. When we speak of a Tartar, he AM.: A. D. 1780 (FEBRUARY — AUGUST); and belongs to the first, whenever we speak of a 1780-1781. Kalmuk, he belongs to the second, of these diTARPEIAN ROCK, The. See CAPITOLINE visions. It is necessary to insist upon this; beHILL. cause, whatever may be the laxity with which TARQUIN THE PROUD, The expulsion the term Tartar is used, it is, in Russian ethnolof. See RomE: B. C. 510. ogy at least, a misnomer when applied to a MonTARRACONENSIS. See SPAIN: B. C. gol. It is still worse to call a Turk a Kalmuk.” 218-25. -R. G. Latham, The Nationalities of Europe, v. 1, ch. 23. — “Tartars (more correctly Tatars, but TARRAGONA: A. D. 1641.- Occupation Tartars is the form generally current), a name by the French.-Surrender to the Spaniards. given to nearly three million inhabitants of the See SPAIN: A. D. 1640–1642. Russian empire, chiefly Moslem and of Turkish A. D. 1644.- Siege by the French. See origin. The majority — in European Russia SPAIN: A. D. 1644-1646. are remnants of the Mongol invasion of the 13th century, while those who inhabit Siberia are TARSUS. See CILICIA. survivals of the once much more numerous TARTAN.-The title of the chief commander Turkish population of the Ural-Altaic region, - under the king - of the Assyrian armies. mixed to some extent with Finnish and Samoye TARTAR DYNASTY OF CHINA, The. dic stems, as also with Mongols. The See CHINA: A. D. 1294–1882. ethnographical features of the present Tartar inTARTARS, OR TATARS.—“The Chinese habitants of European Russia, as well as their used the name in a general sense, to include the language, show that they contain no admixture greater part of their northern neighbours, and it (or very little) of Mongolian blood, but belong was in imitation of them, probably, that the Eu- to the Turkish branch of the Ural-Altaic stock, ropeans applied the name to the various nomade necessitating the conclusion that only Batu, his hordes who controlled Central Asia after the warriors, and a limited number of his followers Mongol invasion. But the name properly be- were Mongolians, while the great bulk of the longed, and is applied by Raschid and other 13th-century invaders were Turks.”—P. A. Mongol historians, to certain tribes living in the Kropotkine, Art. “Tartars" Encyclopædia Brit. north-eastern corner of Mongolia, who, as I be- ALSO IN: H. H. Howorth, Hist. of the Monlieve, were partially, at least, of the Tungusic gols, pt. 2, div. 1, p. 37.— See TURKS; and Monrace, and whose descendants are probably to be GOLS. found among the Solons of Northern Man- TARTESSUS.—"The territory round Gades, churia.”—H. H. Howorth, Hist. of the Mongols, Carteia, and the other Phenician settlements in pt. 1, p. 25. —“The name of Tartars, or Tatars, this district (southwestern Spain] was known to has been variously applied. It was long cus- the Greeks in the sixth century B. C. by the tomary among geographical writers to give this name of Tartessus, and regarded by them sometitle to the Kalmucs and Mongoles, and even to what in the same light as Mexico and Peru apuse it as a distinguishing name for those races of peared to the Spaniards of the sixteenth cenmen who resemble the Kalmucs in features, and tury.”—G. Grote, Hist. of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 18. who have been supposed, whether correctly or This was the rich region known afterwards to not, to be allied to them in descent. Later the Romans as Bætica, as Turdetania, and in authors, more accurate in the application of modern times as Andalusia.-E. H. Bunbury, terms, have declared this to be an improper use Ilist. of Ancient Geog., ch. 21, sect. 2. of the name of Tartar, and by them the appella- ALSO IN: J. Kenrick, Phoenicia, ch. 4, sect. 3. tion has been given exclusively to the tribes of TARUMI, The. See AMERICAN ABORIGIthe Great Turkish race, and chiefly to the north- NES: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED, ern division of it, viz. to the hordes spread TARUSATES, The. See AQUITAINE: THE through the Russian empire and independent ANCIENT TRIBES. Tartary. . . . Whatever may be the true origin TASHKEND, OR TASHKENT, Russian of the name of Tartar, custom has appropriated capture of (1865). See Russia: A. D. 1859– it to the race of men extensively spread through 1876. northern Asia, of whom the Ottoman Turks are TASMANIA: Discovery and naming. See a branch. It would, perhaps, be more strictly AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1601-1800. correct to call all these nations Turks, but the TATARS. See TARTARS. customary appellation may be retained when its TAUBERBISCHOFSHEIM, Battle of. meaning is determined.”—J. C. Prichard, Re- See GERMANY: A. D. 1866. searches into the Physical History of the Races of TAUNTON: A. D. 1685.-The Welcome Mankind, ch. 5, sect. 1 (v. 2). — “The populations to Monmouth.— The Maids of Taunton and in question [the remnants, in southern Russia their flag.-" When Monmouth marched into and Siberia, of the great Mongol empire of the Taunton (A. D. 1685) it was an eminently prosKiptchak), belong to one of three great groups, perous place. ... The townsmen had long 4-47 3089 Page 8
but none of the knights were executed, though usurers' quarter.”—J. H. Middleton, Ancient some died in prison from the effects of their bar- Rome in 1885, ch. 5.—The Temple of Janus was barous treatment. “The property of the Tem. closed, once more, by Vespasian, after the deplars in England was placed under the charge of struction of Jerusalem and the ending of the war a commission at the time that proceedings were in Judea, A. D. 71. “ It had stood open since commenced against them, and the king very soon the German wars of the first princeps [Augustus); treated it as if it were his own, giving away or, according to the computation of the christian manors and convents at his pleasure. A great Orosius, from the birth of Christ to the overpart of the possessions of the Order was subse- throw of the Jewish people: for the senate had quently made over to the Hospitallers. . . . Some refused to sanction Nero's caprice in closing it of the surviving Templars retired to monasteries, on his precarious accommodation with Parthia. others returned to the world, and assumed secu- Never before had this solemn act addressed the lar habits, for which they incurred the censures feelings of the citizens só directly. The of the Pope. . . In Spain, Portugal, and Ger- Peace of Vespasian was celebrated by a new many, proceedings were taken against the Order; bevy of poets and historians not less loudly than their property was confiscated, and in some cases the Peace of Augustus. A new era of happiness torture was used; but it is remarkable that it and prosperity was not less passionately prewas only in France, and those places where dicted.”--C. Verivale, Ilist. of the Romans, ch. 60. Philip's influence was powerful, that any Tem- TEMPLE OF SOLOMON, The.-"As soon plar was actually put to death."--F. C. Wood- as David had given to his people the boon of a house, Military Religious Orders, pt. 2, ch. 6-7 unique capital, nothing could be more natural and 5. than the wish to add sacredness to the glory of ALSO IN: C. G. Addison, The Knights Tem- the capital by making it the centre of the national plars, ch. 7. - J. Michelet, Hist. of France, bk. 5, worship. According to the Chronicles, David ch. 3.-H. H. Milman, Hist. of Latin Christian- .. had made unheard-of preparations to build ity, bk. 12, ch. 1-2 (P. 5). a house for God. But it had been decreed untit that the sanctuary should be built by a man TEMPLE, The (London). See TEMPLARS: whose hands were red with the blood of many A. D. 1185-1313. wars, and he had received the promise that the TEMPLE OF CONCORD AT ROME, great work should be accomplished by his son. The. — After the long contest in Rome over the Into that work Solomon threw himself with Licinian Laws, which were adopted B. C. 367, hearty zeal in the month Zif of the fourth year M. Furius Camillus - the great Camillus — be- of his reign, when his kingdom was consolidated. ing made Dictator for the fifth time, in his eight- He inherited the friendship which David ieth year, brought about peace between the had enjoyed, with Hiram, King of Tyre. . patricians and plebeians, in commemoration of The friendliest overtures passed between the two which he vowed a temple to Concord. “Before kings in letters, to which Josephus appeals as he could dedicate it, the old hero died. The tem- still extant. A commercial treaty was made by ple, however, was built according to his design; which Solomon engaged to furnish the Tyrian ats site, now one of the best known among those king with annual revenues of wheat, barley, and of ancient Rome, can still be traced with great oil, and Hiram put at Solomon's disposal the certainty at the north-western angle of the Forum, skilled labour of an army of Sidonian wood-cutters immediately under the Capitoline. The building and artisans. Some writers have tried to was restored with great magnificence by the minimise Solomon's work as a builder, and have Emperor Tiberius; and it deserved to be so, for spoken of the Temple as an exceedingly insig. it commemorated one of the greatest events of nificant structure which would not stand a moRoman history.”—H. G. Liddell, Hist. of Rome, ment's comparison with the smallest and humblest bk. 2, ch. 15 (v. 1). of our own cathedrals. Insignificant in size it TEMPLE OF DIANA. See EPHESUS. certainly was, but we must not forget its costly TEMPLE OF JANUS, The. — “ The Tem. splendour, the remote age in which the work ple of Janus was one of the earliest buildings of was achieved, and the truly stupendous construcRome, founded, according to Livy (i. 19.) by tions which the design required. Mount Moriah Numa. It stood near the Curia, on the north- was selected as a site hallowed by the tradition east side of the Forum, at the verge of a district of Abraham's sacrifice, and more recently by called the Argiletum. [It was a small David's vision of the Angel of the Pestilence *ædicula 'or shrine, which towards the end of with his drawn sword on the threshing-floor of the Republic, or perhaps earlier, was of bronze. the Jebusite Prince Araunah. But to utilise this It is shown with much minuteness on a First doubly consecrated area involved almost superBrass of Nero as a small cella, without columns, human difficulties, which would have been but with richly ornamented frieze and cornice. avoided if the loftier but less suitable height of Its doors were closed on those rare occasions the Mount of Olives could have been chosen. when Rome was at peace with all the world. The rugged summit had to be enlarged to a From the time of its traditional founder, Numa, space of 500 yards square, and this level was to that of Livy, it was only twice shut supported by Cyclopean walls, which have long after the first Punic War, and secondly after been the wonder of the world. ... The caverns, the victory of Augustus at Actium. It quarries, water storages, and subterranean concontained a very ancient statue, probably by duits hewn out of the solid rock, over which an Etruscan artist, of the doublefaced Janus Jerusalem is built, could only have been conBifrons, or Geminus. The Temple of Janus structed at the cost of immeasurable toil. gave its name to this part of the edge of the It was perhaps from his Egyptian father-in-law Forum, and from the numerous shops of the that Solomon, to his own cost, learnt the secret argentarii or bankers and money-lenders which of forced labour which alone rendered such were there, the word Janus came to mean the undertakings possible. . . . Four classes were Page 9
A. D. 1863-1864 (December-April).-Win- States Senate. The framework of the new Govter operations.— Withdrawal of Longstreet ernment was thus completed and in operation from east Tennessee. See UNITED STATES OF before the death of Mr. Lincoln."— J. G. Blaine, AM, : A. D. 1863-1864 (DECEMBER-APRIL: TEN- Twenty Years of Congress, v. 2, ch. 3. — After the NESSEE- MISSISSIPPI). organization of a loyal government in Tennessee, A. D. 1864 (April). — The Fort Pillow Mas- more than a year passed before the restoration sacre. See UNITED STATES OF AM.: A. D. 1864 of the State to its constitutional relations with (APRIL: TENNESSEE). the United States, by the admission of its SenA. D. 1864 (September - October). — For- ators and Representatives to Congress. Tennesrest's raid. — The capture of Athens. See see was the first, however, among the seceded UNITED STATES OF AM.: A. D. 1864 (SEPTEM- States to obtain that recognition, by being the BER_OCTOBER: GEORGIA). first to ratify the Fourteenth Constitutional 4. D. 1864. (November). — Hood's invasion Amendment. • Immediately on the reception and destruction - The Battles of Franklin of the circular of the Secretary of State containand Nashville. See UNITED STATES OF AM.: ing the proposed amendment, Governor BrownA. D. 1864 (NOVEMBER: TENNESSEE), and (DE- low issued a proclamation summoning the Legis. CEMBER: TENNESSEE). lature of Tennessee to assemble at Nashville on A. D. 1865.—President Johnson's recogni- the 4th of July (1866). . . Every effort was tion of the reconstructed State Government. made to prevent the assembling of the required See UNITED STATES OF AM.: A. D. 1865 (May- number (to constitute a quorum). The powerJULY). ful influence of the President himself was thrown A. D. 1865-1866.- Reconstruction.- Aboli- in opposition to ratification.” By arresting retion of Slavery.-Restoration of the State to calcitrant members, and by “the expedient of its “former, proper, practical relation to the considering the members who were under arrest Union."-- In the early part of 1865, Andrew and confined in a committee room as present in Johnson, though Vice-President-elect, was “still their places," the quorum was assumed to have discharging the functions of military governor been made up and the amendment was ratified. of Tennessee. A popular convention originating “Immediately after the news was received in from his recommendation and assembling under Washington, Mr. Bingham, in the House of his auspices, was organized at Nashville on the Representatives, moved to reconsider a motion 9th day of January, 1865. Membership of the by which a joint resolution relating to the restobody was limited to those who give an active ration of Tennessee had been referred to the support to the Union cause, who have never vol- Committee on Reconstruction,” and, this motion untarily borne arms against the Government, who being adopted, he introduced a substitute which have never voluntarily given aid and comfort to declared, " That the State of Tennessee is hereby the enemy.'. . . Tennessee, as Johnson bluntly restored to her former, proper, practical relation maintained, could only be organized and con- to the Union, and again entitled to be represented trolled as a State in the Union by that portion of by Senators and Representatives in Congress, her citizens who acknowledged their allegiance duly elected and qualified, upon their taking the to the Government of the Union. Under this oaths of office required by existing laws.' On theory of procedure the popular convention pro- the following day this joint resolution passed posed an amendment to the State constitution, the House, and a day later (July 21st), it was * forever abolishing and prohibiting slavery in adopted by the Senate. - W. H. Barnes, Hist, of the State,' and further declaring that the Legis- the 39th Cong., ch. 20. lature shall make no law recognizing the right ALSO IN: Ira P. Jones, Reconstruction in Tenof property in man.' The convention took sev- nessee (Why the Solid South? ch. 7). eral other important steps, annulling in whole A. D. 1866-1871.–The Ku Klux Klan. See and in detail all the legislation which under UNITED STATES OF AM.: A. D. 1866–1871. Confederate rule had made the State a guilty participant in the rebellion. Thus was swept TENNIS - COURT OATH, The. See away the ordinance of Secession, and the State FRANCE: A. D. 1789 (JUNE) debt created in aid of the war against the Union. TENOCHTITLAN. - The native name of All these proceedings were submitted to popular the city of Mexico. See MEXICO: A. D. 1325vote on the 22d of February, and were ratified 1502. by an affirmative vote of 25,293 against a nega- TENPET, The. See MAGIANS. tive vote of 48. The total vote of the State at TENURE-OF-OFFICE BILL, The. See the Presidential election of 1860 was 145,333. UNITED STATES OF AM.: A. D. 1866–1867 (DEMr. Lincoln's requirement of one-tenth of that CEMBER—March). number was abundantly complied with by the TEOTIHUACAN, Pyramids at. See MEXvote on the questions submitted to the popular ICO, ANCIENT: THE TOLTEC EMPIRE, &C. decision. Under this new order of things, William G. Brownlow, better known to the TEQUESTA, The. See AMERICAN ABORIGworld by his soubriquet of . Parson ’Brownlow, INES: TIMUQUANAN FAMILY. was chosen governor without opposition on the TERENTILIAN LAW, The. See Rome: B. C. 451-449. 4th day of March, 1865, the day of Mr. Lincoln's second inauguration. The new Legislature met TERMILI, The. See LYCIANS. at Nashville a month later, on the 3d of April, TEROUENNE: Siege and capture by the and on the 5th ratified the Thirteenth Amend English (1513). See FRANCE: A. Ď. 1513-1515. ment; thus adding the abolition of slavery by TERRA FIRMA. See TIERRA FIRME. National authority to that already decreed by TERROR, The Reign of.- As commonly the State. The Legislature completed its work used, this phrase describes the fearful state of by electing two consistent Union men, David T. things that prevailed in France during a period Patterson and Joseph S. Fowler, to the United of the French Revolution which ended with Page 10
without discrimination of strangers or natives, with which, in the songs of the country, it is of age or sex, of innocence or guilt; the most said to dispute the pre-eminence in the depth moderate accounts state the number of the slain and duration of its snows. The mountain barat 7,000; and it is affirmed by some writers that rier with which Thessaly is thus encompassed is more than 15,000 victims were sacrificed. broken only at the northeast corner by a deep The guilt of the emperor is aggravated by his and narrow cleft, which parts Ossa from Olymlong and frequent residence at Thessalonica."- pus; the defile so renowned in poetry as the E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- vale, in history as the pass, of Tempe. The impire, ch. 27. agination of the ancient poets and declaimers A. D. 904.- Capture and pillage by the delighted to dwell on the natural beauties of this Saracens. -The capture of Thessalonica by a romantic glen and on the sanctity of the site, piratical expedition from Tarsus, A. D.-904, was from which Apollo had transplanted his laurel one of the most terrible experiences of its kind to Delphi. . South of this gulf (the Gulf of in that age of blood and rapine, and one of which Pagasæ), the coast is again deeply indented by the fullest account, by an eye-witness and suf- that of Malia, into which the Spercheius, rising ferer, has come down to posterity. The wretched from Mount Tymphrestus, a continuation of inhabitants who escaped the sword were mostly Pindus, winds through a long, narrow vale, sold into slavery, and the splendid city — then which, though considered as a part of Thessaly, the second in the Byzantine Empire forms a separate region, widely distinguished stripped of all its wealth. The defense of the from the rest by its physical features. It is inplace had been neglected, with implicit depen- tercepted between Othrys and Eta, a huge, rug. dence on the goodwill and the power of St. Deme- ged pile, which stretching from Pindus to the trius.-G. Finlay, Hist. of the Byzantine Empire, sea at Thermopylæ, forms the inner barrier of from 716 to 1057, bk. 2, ch. 1, sect. 2. Greece, as the Cambunian range is the outer, to A. D. 1204-1222.-Capital of the kingdom of which it corresponds in direction and is nearly Saloniki. See SALONIKI. equal in height. From Mount Callidromus, a A. D. 1222-1234.— The Greek empire. See southern limb of Eta, the same range is continEPIRUS: A. D. 1204-1350. ued without interruption, though under various A. D. 1430.--Capture by the Turks.- Thes- names and different degrees of elevation, along salonica, feebly defended by Venetians and the coast of the Eubean Sea. Another Greeks, was taken by the Turks, under Amurath branch, issuing from the same part of Pindus, II., in February, 1430. ““The pillage and the connects it with the loftier summits of Parnas. carnage,' relates the Greek Anagnosta, an eye- sus, and afterward skirting the Corinthian witness of this disastrous night, “transcended Gulf under the names of Cirphis and Helicon, the hopes of the Turks and the terror of the proceeds to form the northern boundary of AtGreeks. No family escaped the swords, the tica under those of Cithæron and Parnes.”—C. chains, the flames, the outrages of the Asiatics Thirlwall, Hist. of Greece, ch. 1 (0. 1), - In the fierce for their prey. At the close of the day, mythical legends of Greece, Thessaly was the each soldier drove like a herd before him, kingdom of Hellen, transmitted to his son Æolus through the streets of Salonica, troops of women, and occupied originally by the Æolic branch of of young girls, of children, of caloyers and an- the Hellenic family. The Æolians, however, chorites, of monks of all the monasteries. Priests appear to have receded from the rich Thessalian were chained with virgins, children with old plain, into Baotia and elsewhere, before various men, mothers with their sons, in derision of age, invading tribes. The people who fixed their of profession, of sex, which added a barbarous name, at last, upon the country, the Thessalians, irony to nudity and death itself.'”—A. Lamar- came into it from Epirus, crossing the Pintine, Hist. of Turkey, bk. 10, sect. 27. dus mountain-range. - See, also, GREECE: THE MIGRATIONS; and DORIANS AND IONIANS. THESSALY. “ The northern part of THETES, The. See DEBT, ANCIENT LEGISGreece is traversed in its whole length by a LATION CONCERNING: GREEK; also, ATHENS: range of mountains, the Greek Apennines, B. C. 594. which issue from the same mighty root, the THEUDEBERT, King of the Franks (AusThracian Scomius, in which Hämus, and Rho- trasia), A. D. 596-612. dopé and the Ilyrian Alps likewise meet. This THIASI.-"The name denotes associations ridge first takes the name of Pindus, where it [in ancient Athens) which had chosen as their intersects the northern boundary of Greece, at a special protector and patron some deity in whose point where an ancient route still affords the honour at certain times they held sacrifices and least difficult passage from Epirus into Thessaly. festal banquets, whilst they pursued in addition From Pindus two huge arms stretch towards the objects of a very varied nature, sometimes jointeastern sea and enclose the vale of Thessaly, the stock businesses, sometimes only social enjoylargest and richest plain in Greece: on the north ments.”—G. F. Schömanu, Antiq. of Greece, pt. the Cambunian Hills, after making a bend 3, ch. 3, sect. 2. towards the south, terminate in the loftier heights THIBAULT I., King of Navarre, A. D. of Olympus, which are scarcely ever entirely 1236–1253..... Thibault II., King of Navarre, free from snow; the opposite and lower chain of 1253-1270. Othrys parting, with its eastern extremity, the THIBET. See TIBET. Malian from the Pagasean Gulf, sinks gently THIERRY I., King of the Franks, at Metz, towards the coast. A fourth rampart, which A. D. 511-534..... Thierry II., King of the runs parallel to Pindus, is formed by the range Franks (Austrasia), 612-613; King of Burwhich includes the celebrated heights of Pelion gundy, 596-613..... Thierry III., King of the and Ossa; the first a broad and nearly even Franks (Neustria and Burgundy), 670-691..... ridge, the other towering into a steep and con- Thierry IV., King of the Franks (Neustria, ical peak, the neighbour and rival of Olympus, Austrasia, and Burgundy), 720-737. Page 11
most numerous and most terrible race known to THREE CHAPTERS, The dispute of the. Herodotus: could they by possibility act in - A famous church dispute raised in the sixth unison or under one dominion (he says) they century by the Emperor Justinian, who discovwould be irresistible.... Numerous as the ered an heretical taint in certain passages, called tribes of Thracians were, their customs and the Three Chapters, culled out of the works of character (according to Herodotus) were marked Theodore of Mopsuestia and two other doctors by great uniformity: of the Getæ, the Trausi, of the church who had been teachers and friends and others, he tells us a few particularities. of Nestorius. A solemn Church Council called The general character of the race presents an ag. (A. D. 553) at Constantinople the fifth general gregate of repulsive features unredeemed by the Council — condemned the Three Chapters and presence of even the commonest domestic affec- anathematized their adherents. But this touched tions. . . It appears that the Thynians and by implication the decrees of the Council of Bithynians, on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus, Chalcedon, which were especially cherished in perhaps also the Mysians, were members of this the Latin Church, and Rome became rebellious. great Thracian race, which was more remotely In the end, the Roman opposition prevailed, and, connected, also, with the Phrygians. And the "in the period of a century, the schism of the whole race may be said to present a character three chapters expired in an obscure angle of the more Asiatic thản European; especially in those Venetian province."-E. Gibbon, Decline and ecstatic and maddening religious rites, which Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 47. prevailed not less among the Edonian Thracians ALSO IN: H. H. Milman, Hist. of Latin Christhan in the mountains of Ida and Dindymon of tianity, bk. 1, ch. 4. Asia, though with some important differences. THREE F'S, The. See IRELAND: A. D. The Thracians served to furnish the Greeks with 1873-1879. mercenary troops and slaves.”—G. Grote, llist. THREE HENRYS, War of the. See of Greece, pt. 2, ch. 26.—“ Under Seuthes (B. C. FRANCE: A. D. 1584-1589, 4244] Thrace stood at the height of its prosper THREE HUNDRED AT THERMOPY. ity. It formed a connected empire from Abdera LÆ, The. See GREECE: B. C. 480 (THERMOPto the Danube, from Byzantium to the Strymon. YLÆ). The land abounded in resources, in corn THREE HUNDRED OF THEBES, The. and flocks and herds, in gold and silver. . See THEBES: B. C. 378. No such state had as yet existed in the whole THREE KINGS, Battle of the. See MAcircuit of the Ægean. But their kingdom ROCCO: THE ARAB CONQUEST, AND SINCE. failed to endure. After Seuthes it broke up into THREE LEGS OF MAN, The. See TRIseveral principalities.” – E. Curtius, Hist. of Greece, bk. 7, ch. 1.—“Herodotus is not wrong THREE PRESIDENCIES OF INDIA, in calling the Thracians the greatest of the The. See INDIA: A. D. 1600-1702. peoples known to him after the Indians. Like THUCYDIDES: The origin of his history. the Illyrian, the Thracian stock attained to no See AMPHIPOLIS. full development, and appears more as hard- THUGS.-THUGGEE. See INDIA: A. D. pressed and dispossessed than as having any 1823-1833. historically memorable course of its own. THULE.- Pytheas, a Greek traveller and The Thracian (language) disappeared amidst the writer of the time (as supposed) of Alexander the fluctuations of peoples in the region of the Great, was the first to introduce the name of Danube and the overpowerful influence of Con- Thule into ancient geography. He described it stantinople, and we cannot even determine the vaguely as an island, lying six days' voyage to place which belongs to it in the pedigree of na- the north of Britain, in a region where the sea betions. . . . Their wild but grand mode of wor- came like neither land nor water, but was of a shipping the gods may perhaps be conceived as thick and sluggish substance, resembling that of a trait peculiar to this stock - the mighty out- the jelly fish. “It appears to me impossible to burst of the joy of spring and youth, the noc- identify the Thule of Pytheas with any approach turnal mountain-festivals of torch-swinging to certainty; but he had probably heard vaguely maidens, the intoxicating sense confusing music, of the existence of some considerable island, or the flowing of wine and the flowing of blood, group of islands, to the north of Britain, whether the giddy festal whirl, frantic with the simul- the Orkneys or the Shetlands it is impossible to taneous excitement of all sensuous passions. say.”—E. II. Bunbury, Hist. of Ancient Geog., Dionysos, the glorious and the terrible, was a ch. 15, sect. 2, foot-note. -- Some modern writers Thracian god.” Under the supremacy of the identify Thule with Iceland; some with the coast Romans, the Thracians were governed by a na- of Norway, mistakenly regarded as an island. tive line of vassal kings, reigning at Bizye But, whichever land it may have been, Thule (Wiza), between Adrianople and the coast of the to the Greeks and Romans, was Ultima Thule, Black Sea, until the Emperor Claudius, A. D. the end of the known world,- the most north46, suppressed the nominal kingdom and made erly point of Europe to which their knowledge Thrace a Roman province. — T. Mommsen, Hist. reached.-R. F. Burton, Ultima Thule, introd., of Rome, bk. 8, ch. 6.-In the 8th and 9th cen- sect. 1 (v. 1). turies, “the great Thracian race, which had once THUNDERING LEGION, The.- During been inferior in number only to the Indian, and the summer of the year 174, in a campaign which which, in the first century of our era, had ex- the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus concited the attention of Vespasian by the extent of ducted against the Quadi, on the Danube, the the territory it occupied, had . : . almost dis- Roman army was once placed in a perilous posiappeared. The country it had formerly inhabi- tion. It was hemmed in by the enemy. cut off ted was peopled by Vallachian and Sclavonian from all access to water, and was reduced to tribes.”—G. Finlay, Hist. of the Byzantine Em- despair. At the last extremity, it is said, the pire, bk. 1, ch. 1, sect. 1. army was saved by a miraculous storm, which Page 12
ward to Cornwall, ascending the St. Lawrence, TORTURE. See Law, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1708. and settling on th north bank. Others went TORY. See TORIES. from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia up the TOTEMS.—“A peculiar social institution St. Lawrence to Sorel, where they wintered, go- exists among the North American] Indians, ing afterwards to Kingston. Most of the exiles very curious in its character; and though I am ascended the Hudson to Albany, then by the Mo- not prepared to say that it may be traced through hawk and Wood Creek to Oneida and Ontario all the tribes east of the Mississippi, yet its lakes. .. As these exiles had stood for the prevalence is so general, and its influence on po. unity of the empire, they took the name of the litical relations so important, as to claim especial United Empire Loyalists” (a name which is often attention. Indian communities, independent of abbreviated in common use to U. E. Loyalists). — their local distribution into tribes, bands, and G.E. Ellis, The Loyalists and their Fortunes (Narrative and Critical Hist. of Am., v. 7, pp. 185–214).- Each clan has its emblem, consisting of the fig. Some 10,000 refugees had, in 1784, and the few ure of some bird, beasť, or reptile; and each is years following, found homes in Western Canada, distinguished by the name of the animal which just as it is estimated . that 20,000 had it thus bears as its device; as, for example, the settled in the provinces by the sea. Assuming clan of the Wolf, the Deer, the Otter, or the full responsibility for the care and present sup- Hawk. In the language of the Algonquins, port of her devoted adherents, Great Britain these emblems are known by the name of Toopened her hand cheerfully to assist them. . tems.' The members of the same clan, being The sum paid by the British Government to the connected, or supposed to be so, by ties of kin. suffering refugees was about $15,000,000.”. dred more or less remote, are prohibited from G. Bryce, Short Hist. of the Canadian People, intermarriage. Thus Wolf cannot marry Wolf; ch, 7, sect. 2. but he may, if he chooses, take a wife from the ALSO IN: E. Ryerson, The_Loyalists of Am. clan of Hawks, or any other clan but his own. and their Times.-L. Sabine, Biog. Sketches of the It follows that when this prohibition is rigidly Loyalists of Am. observed, no single clan can live apart from the rest; but the whole must be mingled together, TORNOSA, Battle of. See SPAIN: A. D. and in every family the husband and wife must 1808 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER). be of different clans. To different totems attach TORO, Battle of (1476). See SPAIN: A. D. different degrees of rank and dignity; and those 1368-1479. of the Bear, the Tortoise, and the Wolf are TOROMONOS, The. See Bolivia: ABO- among the first in honor. Each man is proud of RIGINAL INHABITANTS. his badge, jealously asserting its claims to re spect; and the members of the same clan, though TORONTO: A. D. 1749.–The hospitable they may, perhaps, speak different dialects, and origin of the city.—“The Northern Indians dwell far asunder, are yet bound together by the were flocking with their beaver-skins to the closest ties of fraternity. If a man is killed, English of Oswego; and in April, 1749, an every member of the clan feels called upon to officer named Portneuf had been sent with avenge him; and the wayfarer, the hunter, or soldiers and workmen to build a stockaded the warrior is sure of a cordial welcome in the trading-house at Toronto, in order to intercept distant lodge of the clansman whose face perthem, — not by force, which would have been haps he has never seen. It may be added that ruinous to French interests, but by a tempting certain privileges, highly prized as hereditary supply of goods and brandy. Thus the fort was rights, sometimes reside in particular clans; kept well stocked, and with excellent effect.”. such as that of furnishing a sachem to the tribe, F. Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, ch. 3 (v. 1). or of performing certain religious ceremonies or A. D. 1813. – Taken and burned by the magic rites.”— F. Parkman, Conspiracy of Pon. Americans. See UNITED STATES OF AM.: A. D. tiac, ch. 1. —“A totem is a class of material 1813 (APRIL-JULY). objects which a savage regards with superstiA. D. 1837.-The Mackenzie rising.–Defeat tious respect, believing that there exists between of the rebels. See CANADA: A. D. 1837-1838. him and every member of the class an intimate and altogether special relation. The name is deTORQUES.-"The Latin word torques has rived from an Ojibway (Chippeway) word been applied in a very extended sense to the 'totem,' the correct spelling of which is somevarious necklaces or collars for the neck, found what uncertain. It was first introduced into in Britain, and other countries inhabited by the literature, so far as appears, by J. Long, an InCeltic tribes. This word has been supposed to dian interpreter of last century, who spelt it be derived from the Welch or Irish “torc,' which 'totam.'. : . The connexion between a man and has the same signification, but the converse is his totem is mutually beneficent; the totem proequally plausible, that this was derived from the tects the man, and the man shows his respect for Latin,”- 8. Birch, On the Torc of the Celts the totem in various ways, by not killing it if it (Archaeological Journal, v. 2). be an animal, and not cutting or gathering it if TORRES VEDRAS, The Lines of. See it be a plant. As distinguished from a fetich, a SPAIN: A. D. 1809–1810 (OCTOBER—SEPTEMBER), totem is never an isolated individual, but always and 1810-1812. a class of objects, generally a species of animals TORTONA: A. D. 1155.— Destruction by or of plants, more rarely a class of inanimate Frederick Barbarossa. See ITALY: A. D. 1154- natural objects, very rarely a class of artificial 1162. objects. Considered in relation to men, totems TORTOSA: A. D. 1640.-Spanish capture are of at least three kinds:- (1) the clan totem, and sack. See SPAIN: A. D. 1640-1642. common to a whole clan, and passing by inheriTORTUGAS: The Rendezvous of the tance from generation to generation ; (2) the sex Buccaneers. See AMERICA: A. D. 1639-1700. totem, common either to all the males or to all Page 13
been, on the one hand, separate governments, TRADES UNIONS. See SOCIAL MOVEand, on the other, the separate constituents of a MENTS. common government. In Massachusetts, for two TRAFALGAR, Naval Battle of. Sec centuries and a quarter, the Deputies in the Gen- FRANCE: A. D. 1805 (MARCH-DECEMBER). eral Court - or Representatives, as they have TRAJAN, Roman Emperor, A. D. 98-117. been named under the State Constitution TRAJAN'S WALL.- The Emperor Trajan tinued to represent the municipal corporations. “began a fortified line, afterwards completed, In New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut and from the Rhine to the Danube. This great work Rhode Island, that basis of representation still was carried from Ratisbon to Mayence. It was subsists." —J. G. Palfrey, Hist. of New Eng., v. known as Trajan's Wall. It may still be traced 1. ch. 9.-"Boston is the largest community to some extent by the marks of a mound and a that ever maintained the town organization, ditch.”- Church' and Brodribb, Notes to The probably the most generally able and intelligent. Germany of Tacitus, ch. 29. No other town ever played so conspicuous a part TRAMELI, The. See LYCIANS. in connection with important events. It led TRANSALPINE.-Beyond the Alps, lookMassachusetts, New England, the thirteen colo- ing from the Roman standpoint. nies, in the struggle for independence. Proba- TRANSLEITHANIA. See AUSTRIA: A. D. bly in the whole history of the Anglo-Saxon 1866-1867. race, there has been no other so interesting mani- TRANSOXANIA. See BOKIARA. festation of the activity of the Folk-mote. Of TRANSPADANE GAUL.-Cisalpine Gaul this town of towns, Samuel Adams was the son north of the Padus, or Po. See Padus. of sons. One may almost call him the crea- TRANSRHENANE.-Beyond the Rhine,-ture of the town-meeting.”—J. K. Hosmer, looking from the Roman standpoint; that is, on Sumuel Adams, the Man of the Town- Meeting the eastern and northern side of the Rhine. (Johns Hopkins Unio. Studies, series 2, no. 4). TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC, The. See ALSO IN: E. Channing, Town and County Gov't SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881. in the Eng. Colonies (Johns Hopkins Univ. Studies, series 2, no. 10). -See, also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. TRANSYLVANIA: Early history. See 1640–1644; and SELECTMEN. DACIA. TOWTON, Battle of (A. D. 1461). — On The Huns in possession. See Huns: A. D. Palm Sunday, March 29, 1461, two armies of 433–453. Englishmen met on a goodly plain," ten miles 12th Century.- Conquest by Hungary. from the city of York, between the villages of Settlement of Germans.' See HUNGARY: A. D. Towton and Saxton, to fight out the contention 1114-1301. of the parties of the “ two roses,”- of Lancaster A. D. 1526-1567:- John Zapolya, the waivod, and York. The battle they fought is called the elected King of Hungary.- His contest with bloodiest that ever dyed English soil. It raged Ferdinand of Austria.- His appeal to the through an afternoon and a night until the fol- Turks.-The Sultan assumes suzerainty of lowing day, and the slain of the two sides has the country. See HUNGARY: A. D. 1526been variously reckoned by different historians 1567. at 20,000 to 38,000. No quarter was given by A. D. 1567-1660. — Struggles between the the victorious partisans of Edward IV. and the Austrian and the Turk. See HUNGARY: A. D. Lancastrians were utterly crushed. Henry VI. 1567-1604; and 1606-1660. fled to Scotland and Queen Margaret repaired to A. D. 1575. - Stephen Batory, the Duke, France. - See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455–1471.-C. elected King of Poland. See POLAND: A. D. Ransome, Battle of Toroton (English Historical 1574-1590. Rev., July, 1889). A. D. 1599-1601. Wallachian conquest. TOXANDRIA. — After Julian's successful See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES, 14-18TH campaigns against the Franks, A. D. 358, the CENTURIES (ROUMANIA, ETC.). latter were permitted to remain, as subjects of A. D. 1606.-Yoke of the Ottomans partly the Roman Empire, in “an extensive district of broken. See HUNGARY: A. D. 1595-1606. Brabant, which was then known by the appella- A. D. 1660-1664.- Recovery of independence tion of Toxandria, and may deserve to be consid- from the Turks. See HUNGARY: A. D. 1660ered as the original seat of their Gallic mon- 1664. archy. ... This name seems to be derived from A. D. 1699.-Ceded to the House of Austria the · Toxandri' of Pliny, and very frequently by the Turks, in the Treaty of Carlowitz. occurs in the histories of the middle age. Tox- See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699. andria was a country of woods and morasses, which extended from the neighbourhood of TRANSYLVANIA, The Kentucky colony Tongres to the contlux of the Vahal and the of. See KENTUCKY: A. D. 1765-1778. Rhine.”—E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Ro. TRAPPISTS.-The monks of La Trappe man Empire, ch. 19, with foot-note.-See, also, are often referred to as Trappists. “This celeGAUL: A. D. 355-361. brated abbey was one of the most ancient beTOXARCHI, The.—The commanders of the longing to the Order of Cisteaux [the CisterAthenian archers and of the city-watch (known cians). It was established [A. D. 1140] by as Scythians) were so called. — A. Boeckh, Public Rotrou, the second count of Perche, and underEconomy of Athens, bk. 2, ch. 11. taken to accomplish a vow made whilst in peril TRACHIS.-TRACHINIA. See GREECE: of shipwreck.” In the 17th century the monks B. C. 480 (THERMOPYLÆ). had become scandalously degenerate and disso. TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT. lute. Their institution was reformed by M. de TRACTS FOR THE TIMES.-TRACT Rancé, who assumed the direction as abbot in NINETY. See OXFORD OR TRACTARIAN MOVE- 1662, and who introduced the severe discipline for which the monastery was afterwards famous. 4-49 3121 Page 14
of the dead - the fallen empress Helena TREVIRI, The.- The Treviri were one of guarded them and dug a grave for them with the peoples of Gaul, in Cæsar's time, “ whose her own hands. The Christian population of territory lay on the left bank of the Rhine and Trebizond was expelled from the city and mostly on both sides of the Mosella (Mosel). Trier (anenslaved. Its place was taken by a Moslem col- cient Treves) on the Mosel was the head-quarters ony.-G. Finlay, Hist. of the Empire of Trebizond of the Treviri.”— G. Long, Decline of the Roman (History of Greece and of the Empire of Trebizond). Republic, v. 4, ch. 8. TREVISAN MARCHES, Tyranny of EcTREBONIAN LAW, The. See Rome: celino di Romano in the. See VERONA: A. D. B. C. 57-52. 1236–1259. TREK, The Great. See SOUTH AFRICA: TRIAD SOCIETY, OR WATER-LILY A. D. 1806-1881. SECT, The.- The most extensive of the many TREMECEN, The Kingdom of. See BAR- secret societies among the Chinese is “the TienBARY STATES: A. D. 1516–1535. ti hwui, or San-hoh hwui, i. e. the Triad Society. TREMONT, The Name. See MASSACHU- It was formerly known by the title of the Pili-lien SETTS: A. D. 1630. kiau, or Water-lily Sect, but having been proTRENT, The Council of. See PAPACY: scribed by the government, it sought by this A. D. 1537-1563. alteration of name, and some other slight changes, TRENT AFFAIR, The. See UNITED to evade the operation of the laws. In fact, it STATES OF AM.: A. D. 1861 (NOVEMBER). still subsists in some of tho remoter provinces TRENTON : A. D. 1776.–The surprise of under its old name and organization. The the Hessians. See UNITED STATES OF AM. : known and indeed almost openly avowed object A. D. 1776-1777 WASHINGTON'S RETREAT. of this society has been, for many years, the overturn of the Mant-chou dynasty.' The TRÈVES: Origin. Trèves was originally Chinese Rebellion (North Am. Rev., July, 1854). the chief town of the Treviri, from whom it de- ALSO IN: Abbé Huc, Christianity in China, rived its name. When the Romans established a &c., v. 2, pp. 274–277.— H. A. Giles, llistoric colony there they called it Augusta Trevirorum. China, pp. 395–399. In time, the Augusta was dropped and Treviro- TRIAL BY COMBAT. See WAGER rum became Trèves, or Trier. See TREVIRI. BATTLE, Under the Romans.--"The town of the Tre- TRIANON TARIFF, The. See FRANCE: TRIBUNES, Consular, or Military. See TRIBUNES OF THE PLEBS. See A. D. 402.--Abandoned by the Roman præ- TRIBUNITLA. fecture. See BRITAIN: A. D. 407. TRIBUTUM, The.—The tributum, a warA. D. 1125-1152.-Origin of the Electorate. tax, collected from the Roman people in the See GERMANY: A. D. 112.5-1152. earlier periods of the Republic, was “looked A. D. 1675.-Taken from the French by the upon as a loan, and was returned on the termiImperialists. See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): nation of a successful war out of the captured A. D. 1674-1678. booty. ... The principle that Rome was justi. A, D. 1689.-Threatened destruction by the fied in living at the expense of her subjects was French. See FRANCE: A. D. 1689-1690. formally acknowledged when, in the year 167 A. D. 1697.-Restored to the Empire. See B. C., the tributum the only direct tax whiclı FRANCE: A. D. 1697. the Roman citizens paid — was abolished, beA. D. 1704.–Taken by Marlborough. See cause the government could dispense with it GERMANY: A. D. 1704. after the conquest of Macedonia. The entire A. D. 1801-1803.-Extinction of the Elector- burden and expense of the administration were ate. See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803. now put off upon the subjects.”—W. Ihne, Hist. of Rome, bk. 6, ch.7 ( of Troyes, France.
of. TRICAMARON, "Battle of (A. D. 533). See Page 15Page 16Page 17Page 18Page 19Page 20Page 21Page 22Page 23Page 24Page 25Page 26 |
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